WOMAN (אִשָּׁה, H851, meaning woman, wife, or female [cf. discussion of etymology below]; γυνή, G1222, meaning woman as an adult female, wife, bride).

1. OT usage.

a. Status and rights. The primary focus must be upon the Genesis account of creation and the description of woman’s origin. The description of creation (Gen 1:26, 27) seems to imply that woman as the female counterpart to man is essential to the image of God. Following the structure of Heb. poetic parallelism, both male and female are necessary for the realization of the image of God. The theological implications of this fact are not even hinted at in the Genesis account; however, woman’s unique and distinctive role arises from her participation in the imago Dei. The more detailed anthropocentric account of creation in Genesis 2:18-25 raises several questions. One is the question of etymology. Following the Biblical tradition a popular etymology is indicated in the text implying that אִשָּׁה, H851, comes from אִישׁ֒, H408. Critical studies on the OT have called in question this popular treatment. It seems to rest more on a verbal resemblance than an exact etymological relationship. BDB argues for an etymology from the word אנשׁ, meaning soft or delicate. We cannot be sure of the exact origin; however, the point of the Genesis account is the essential humanity, equality and oneness of woman with man. Both man and woman share in God’s creative work. (Other languages also reveal an etymological relationship of woman to man; see for instance the Latin vira from vir.) Not only does the account of the Fall assign an influential role to woman, but the עָזַר, H6468, help or helper of Genesis 2:18, 20 indicates man’s incompleteness and perhaps man’s weakness apart from woman. Equally important for understanding the status and role of woman in the structure of OT thought is the descriptive meaning of the proper name חַוָּ֑ה, meaning life because “she was the mother of all living” (Gen 3:20). The subordinate role of woman seems to be a result of the Fall rather than creation (cf. Gen 3:16). Woman’s rights were protected under the authority of the divine law: “Honor your father and mother” (Exod 20:12; Lev 20:9; Deut 5:16; 27:16).

b. Family and domestic roles. In the OT the primary position of the woman was within the structure of the family. She did, in fact, move from one family unit to another. Not only in patriarchal times but throughout the OT history, the father exercised primary responsibility for the female members of the family, whether daughters or servants, until that responsibility was transferred to the husband or new master. (Cf. Abraham and Hagar [Gen 16:2]; Laban and his daughters Leah and Rachel [Gen 28-31]; David and Michal [1 Sam 18:20, 27; 19:11-17]; Solomon and his wives [1 Kings 11:1].) It is important to note here the concept of the kinsman and its relationship to the widow. (Cf. the story of Judah and Tamar and the Book of Ruth.) Probably most important is the role of childbearing as the fulfillment of a woman’s position in OT society. Barrenness was considered a curse from God and a diminishing of a woman’s divinely assigned station in life. (Cf. Sarah [Gen 17:15]; Rachel [Gen 30]; and Hannah [1 Sam 1:2].) The Biblical text calls attention to the domestic duties of the wife such as making bread, sewing, carrying water and generally providing for her husband and family. (Cf. Gen 24:11, 13-16, 19, 20; 27:9; Prov 31:10-31; Gen 29:6; Exod 2:16; 35:26; 1 Sam 2:19; Gen 18:6; 2 Sam 13:8; Judg 4:18; 1 Sam 9:11; 24:18ff.; 2 Kings 4:8-10.) The woman’s unique status in the home is indicated by the separate mention of her in the tenth commandment (Exod 20:17). Within the structure of the family a daughter might become the heir of the father’s estate provided there were no sons. The inheritance could not however be transferred from the tribe through marriage, and interestingly enough a daughter could marry outside of her tribe only if the husband took the wife’s family name (Num 27:1-8; 36:6-9; Neh 7:63). Unmarried daughters were to be provided for by the eldest son (Gen 31:14, 15). Similarly the childless widow is to be cared for also by the eldest son, and a widowed sister-in-law may bear children by the brother-in-law. This latter situation came under the law of the kinsman. (Cf. the Book of Ruth.) Care is also exercised that the rights of the woman may be protected when a divorce is required; however, the husband does seem to have the favored position in the divorce arrangements. But the OT minimizes the possibilities for divorce and is careful to indicate God’s disfavor with the practice generally. (Cf. Deut 22:13ff.; 24:1ff.; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:8; Mal 2:16.) The question of morality will be discussed below, but it is essential to note here that one of the primary roles of the woman within marriage was sexual fulfillment. This much is implied in the early account of creation in Genesis 1:26-28; 2:18-25, but the Book of Deuteronomy repeatedly calls attention to the sexual dimension of husband-wife relationships. Even a captive woman may be married, if the Israelite is attracted to her physical beauty, and once having been married to an Israelite she assumes a new social status in the community (cf. Deut 21:10-14). “When a man is newly married, he shall not go out with the army or be charged with any business; he shall be free at home one year, to be happy with his wife whom he has taken” (Deut 24:5). Undergirding this same idea is the sexual emphasis of the Song of Solomon. This love poem has been the subject of much misunderstanding and misinterpretation, but its stress upon the physical pleasures of human love are presented without shame or embarrassment! Finally, it should be noted that her respect within the home is a legal condition of OT morality. Supported by the Mosaic Code of Exodus 20:12, the writers of the Book of Proverbs repeatedly mention the mother as well as the father in the admonitions of respect. (Cf. Prov 1:8; 6:20; 10:1; 15:20; 20:20; 23:22.)

c. As leaders in society. That women actively may participate in the political life of the nation is obvious, particularly during the monarchy. Bath-sheba, the mother of Solomon, maneuvered the events toward the end of David’s reign to assure Solomon the throne (1 Kings 1-3). The political and spiritual reforms of King Asa included the removal of his mother Queen Maacah (1 Kings 15:9ff.). In 2 Kings 11 is the record of a queen and a former king’s sister both struggling to control the throne. But it is Deborah and Jezebel who are best remembered for their military and political exploits. Although the 2nd-cent. writer of the book of Ecclesiasticus mentions only outstanding male leaders of Israel’s history, the Biblical text is careful to acknowledge the positive and negative effects women have had upon Israel’s history. The song of Deborah further acknowledges the role of Jael, the wife of Heber, who slew Jabin, king of Canaan (Judg 4:2, 17, 23, 24). Jezebel’s wickedness euphemistically describes the idolatrous woman in the church at Thyatira (Rev 2:20).

d. Morality and spiritual idealism. Eve’s decisive role in the Fall introduces the important OT issue of female morality. Only the NT however calls attention to the fact that “Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor” (1 Tim 2:14). The key to her morality is her sexuality, and consequently, the effect of the Fall is most seriously demonstrated in the pain of childbearing and the misuse of her sexuality (Gen 3:16). On the other hand, the relationship of the image of God to female sexuality implies the highest appreciation of her nature as a bearer of the divine image. The addition of כְּנֶגְדֹּֽו, “fit for him,” to “helper” in the Heb. text of Genesis 2:18 implies not only a spiritual but an anatomical complement of woman to man. Basically the woman’s morality from the sexual standpoint involved her faithfulness to this divinely created role. For this reason, the Biblical idea of knowing, whether God or another person, always looked to the sexual analogy for its fullest meaning. Conversely, sexual violations are serious sins because they disrupt the I-Thou possibilities of personal relationships. (Cf. Gen 4:1; Amos 3:2.) The Levitical statutes provide the severest penalties for violations of this high standard of sexuality. Woman’s equal status under the law is underlined by the fact that the sin of adultery or fornication calls for the death penalty for both the man and the woman (Lev 20:10). During the woman’s menstruation, she is declared to be unclean, and all sexual activity is prohibited (18:19). It is in the prophetic lit. and esp. the Book of Hosea that the full implications of sexuality for spiritual adultery are most vividly set forth. The hermeneutical problem of the Book of Hosea must not blind one to the serious nature of idolatry as spiritual adultery. As idolatry robs man of his saving relationship with Yahweh, so immorality, whether fornication or adultery, robs man of realizing his highest human potential. But Hosea is not alone in this emphasis. “You have played the harlot” is a familiar phrase describing Israel’s unfaithfulness. (Cf. Isa 1:21; 23:15-17; Jer 3:1-8; Ezek 16:15-41.) Woman’s failure in this area could also be forgiven, and the OT presents one of the greatest illustrations of divine grace in the case of Rahab who not only was forgiven but was later exemplified as a pattern of faith. (Cf. Josh 6:17-25; Hab 11:31; James 2:25.) In this connection, the woman Jezebel becomes the antithesis of Rahab (1 Kings 16:21; 2 Kings 9:7-37; Rev 2:20). The OT is faithful to call attention to the breach of these high standards of morality whether it be Judah and Tamar (Gen 38:1-26) or David and Bathsheba (2 Sam 11:3) or Ammon and Tamar (2 Sam 13:10). The practice of prostitution which in OT times was so closely related to religion, particularly Baalism, is strictly forbidden (Lev 19:29; 20:6-9; Deut 23:17). The influence of Baalism always posed a threat to these standards, and Israel never seems to have been very successful in freeing herself from these degrading forms of pagan cult life (1 Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:46; 2 Kings 23:7; Hos 4:14). Although women could portray the highest of spiritual ideals as is illustrated by Hannah (1 Sam 1; 2), the “lesser” vices of jealousy, selfish ambition and pride as well as the ultimate sin of idolatry are all represented in Israel’s history. Note for example Sarah’s jealousy (Gen 16:1-6), Rebekah’s schemes to favor Jacob (Gen 27:5-46), and the paganizing influence of Solomon’s wives (1 Kings 11:1-8). A woman could be the cause of one’s spiritual fall as in the case of Samson (Judg 13-16) or she could be a great spiritual asset as illustrated in the political influence of an Esther or by the practical assistance like the widow of Zarephath in Elijah’s ministry (1 Kings 17). But it is the Book of Proverbs that calls attention to the high ideals of womanhood. The descriptive term is זָרָ֑ה, from the verb זוּר֮, H2319, meaning “to be a stranger” but implying prostitute. In antithetical terms, the writers of these terse sayings admonish the woman not to follow in the ways of the “loose woman.” Other Heb. terms are used to describe the anti-type of the virtuous woman: evil, noisy, contentious, and wanton. (Cf. Prov 2:16; 5:3, 20; 6:24; 7:5-10; 9:13; 21:19; 22:14.) This “loose woman” is contrasted with the “gracious woman” (֭חֵן) in 11:16, but the classical text on the woman of virtue is Proverbs 31:10-31. A careful examination of this passage will indicate the uniqueness of a godly woman in OT life and thought.

e. As members of the covenant community. Nothing illustrates the high place of women in the OT teaching more than her place in the religious life of Israel. On the one hand, her spirituality is sometimes far superior to her male counterpart, as is seen in a Deborah, a Hannah, a Jochebed or a Ruth. Miriam and other women participated in the celebration dancing at God’s deliverance from Egypt (Exod 15:20). Since there are references to women as weavers (Prov 31:19), we might assume that this art, so essential to the construction of the Tent or Tabernacle (cf. Exod 35-40), may have been practiced by women although explicit reference is made only to men. In the later history of Israel, the Chronicler’s history, women are specifically mentioned among the “singers” who lamented the death of Josiah (2 Chron 35:25). The total number of “singers” was 245 and included both men and women (Neh 7:67). It may have assumed that the inclusive phrase, “all the congregation of Israel,” would include women at such great festivals as the Passover, Pentecost and the Feast of Tabernacles. But above all is the OT designation of “prophetess” (נְבִיאָ֜ה) for Huldah (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chron 34:22), Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), the wife of Isaiah (Isa 8:3) and the “false prophetess” Noadiah (Neh 6:14). Although the Levite priesthood was closed to women, the other offices of royalty and prophecy seem on occasion to have fallen to unusual women. When the OT picture of women is presented in contrast to Israel’s neighbors, it is not difficult to see the advantages and advancement of Heb. religion. D. M. Pratt’s observation is worth noting, “Under the Hebrew system the position of woman was in marked contrast with her status in surrounding heathen nations. Her liberties were greater, her employments more varied and important, her social standing more respectful and commanding” (ISBE, V, 3100).

2. NT usage. The NT builds upon the OT tradition; in some ways it is clearer, but in some respects more problematical.

a. Life and ministry of Jesus. The gospels are replete with references to women who were directly involved in the ministry of Jesus. But the most important woman in the NT is Mary the mother of Jesus. Her importance does not, however, derive from her active role in the ministry of Jesus, but from her maternal relationship to the Son of God. The Western Text of Luke 1:28 contains the reading “Blessed are you among women”; whereas, the preferred reading is simply, “Hail, O favored one, the Lord is with you.” In any case, Mary’s unique role is affirmed. During the earthly ministry of Jesus, Mary remains in the background, and except for the terse reply recorded in John 2:4 and Jesus’ stress upon the will of God as the condition for familial ties (cf. Matt 12:46-50), it is to be assumed that Jesus always remained close to His mother. In this connection, it is understandable why He made special preparations for her while still on the cross (John 19:25-27). In a somewhat similar relationship, Elizabeth the mother of John the Baptist is portrayed as an agent of God’s power (Luke 1:5-25, 39-66). In the actual life of Jesus, specific women play an important role. Mention is made of Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Joseph, the other Mary, the mother of the sons of Zebedee as well as Mary and Martha. Much of Jesus’ ministry was centered upon the needs and requests of women. One of Jesus’ earliest acts of healing was the mother of Peter (Mark 1:29ff.). In addition to the healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Luke 8:43ff.), there is recorded the raising from the dead the son of the widow of Nain (7:11-17), the healing of the daughter of the woman from Syro-phoenicia (Mark 7:24-30) and the raising of Lazarus in response to the pleas of Mary and Martha (John 11:17-43). At the same time, Jesus often addressed His teaching to women and used women as illustrations of spiritual truths: a woman loses a coin (Luke 15:8), two women are pictured as grinding at the mill prior to the parousia (Luke 17:35), at the well in Sychar it is a woman of questionable reputation who meets Jesus and the questionable passage of John 7:53-8:11 centers upon a woman charged with the capital offense of adultery. Observe also that it is women who are specifically mentioned as following Jesus on His last journey to Jerusalem and His crucifixion (Matt 27:55, 56); they were present at the scene of the crucifixion (Luke 23:49); they prepared the body with spices and ointments for burial and followed the body to the grave site (Matt 27:61; Luke 23:55, 56); on the morning of the resurrection they were first at the tomb (Matt 28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:1; John 20:1); and they were the first to witness the risen Lord in His triumph over death (Matt 28:9; Mark 16:9; John 20:14). Although it has been conjectured that perhaps Jesus might have been married there seems to be little substantial evidence to support this claim. (Cf. W. E. Phipps, Was Jesus Married?)

b. In the Early Church: the post-ascension narrative of the Church describes a band of 120, but special notice is given to Mary the mother of Jesus and “the women” (Acts 1:14). The church at Philippi owes its origin to the conversion of Lydia (Acts 16:14, 40). The apostolic history records how the church which met in the home of Mary, the mother of John Mark, prayerfully executed the release of Peter from prison (Acts 12:6-17). Priscilla’s importance is underscored by the fact that she is always mentioned in conjunction with her husband Aquila. (Cf. Acts 18:2, 18, 26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tim 4:19.) The NT admonition of submissiveness and quietness on the part of women in the church has been interpreted by some to mean that Peter and Paul were biased against women. (Cf. 1 Cor 14:33-36; 1 Tim 2:11, 12; 1 Pet 3:1.) Yet, it should be observed that in the closing greetings of Romans 16 no less than eight different Christian women are mentioned by name: Phoebe, Prisca (Priscilla), Mary, Tryphena, Tryphosa, Persis, Julia and the sister of Nereus (Rom 16:1, 3, 6, 12, 15). Lois and Eunice, mother and grandmother of Timothy are highly regarded by the apostle (2 Tim 1:5; 3:14, 15). Although Paul’s instructions regarding women, on the surface, seem harsh, it should always be remembered that it is the female analogy that he uses to describe the Church as a bride or wife, and certainly the Church occupies a central place in Paul’s theology (Eph 4:21-32; cf. Rev 19:1-10).

c. The offices of prophetess and deaconess in the Early Church. The word “office” may be too ecclesiastical but in Acts 21:8, 9, the daughters of Philip are described as “prophesying” (προφητεύσαι); and in Romans 16:1, Paul describes Phoebe as a “deaconess of the church at Cenchreae...a helper of many.” The Gr. term is διάκονος, G1356, a term that can be either masculine as “deacon,” or feminine as “deaconess.” It is impossible to ascertain the reasons for the restrictive roles as implied in 1 Corinthians 14:33-35; 1 Timothy 2:11, 12 and 1 Peter 3:1ff. when all evidence points to dramatic participation on the part of women in the Early Church. It may be that certain women had usurped their servant roles. Nevertheless, there is some positive evidence for an “office” of deaconess (Rom 16:1) in the Early Church. There is some suggestion that the “enrolling” (καταλέγω, G2899, meaning “to register or catalog”) of widows in 1 Timothy 5:9, 10 may have been an indication of a distinct order within the Church, and it may have been these widows who were deaconesses (cf. Rom 16:1; Phil 4:2, 3; 1 Tim 3:8-13). Chrysostom, Tertullian and other church fathers recognize such an office with regular duties as prayer, fasting, visiting the sick, instruction of women, assisting in baptism and aiding in the preparation of communion. In the light of these facts, it might be best to interpret the restrictions on women in public worship in 1 Corinthians 14:33-35 as applying more specifically to the charismatic experience of the Corinthian church while 1 Timothy 2:11, 12 and 1 Peter 3:1ff., refer to the governing responsibilities of administration. This would still leave the opportunities of service open to women, to deaconess, without contradicting these other statements by Paul and Peter.

d. Pattern of life. The teachings of Christ regarding divorce are intended to protect the rights of women, and the NT reenforces the OT emphasis on woman’s primary domestic role. In Matthew 5:32 it is implied that divorce forces a woman into a life of prostitution simply to survive. Paul’s description of the sexual relationship in 1 Corinthians 7:1-7 is unparalleled in ancient thought and lit.: “the husband does not rule over his body, but the wife does.” Paul is equally insistent that the Christian wife must not dress or act in any way that might bring shame to her husband. This seems to be the motivation behind Paul’s statements about the length of a woman’s hair in 1 Corinthians 11:2-16. In a cultural setting where short hair was a mark of sexual looseness, the Christian wife must guard against any conformity to society’s standards if those standards imply immorality. This is not intended as a limitation on the woman’s freedom but rather as a description of how she can fulfill her role in life. In this same connection, the husband and wife relationship is founded upon the highest ideal: Christ’s love for the Church and the Church’s submission and obedience to her Lord (Eph 5:21-33). This same theme is repeated in Titus 2:1-10 and 1 Peter 3:1-7.

e. Sexual perversion and the symbol of evil. Christ’s ministry seems to have attracted social outcasts including prostitutes (cf. Luke 7:36-50; John 7:53-8:11; 4:1-42), but the discipline of the Church is specifically directed toward those who violate the seventh commandment (1 Cor 5 and 6). The act of sexual intercourse is not simply a physical act, but a symbol of marital commitment; therefore, no Christian can join himself to a prostitute without becoming one with her (1 Cor 6:12-20; Eph 5:21-33). The increase of female promiscuity is one mark of the “last days” according to Paul (2 Tim 3:7). The Church at Thyatira (Rev 2:18, 24) was rebuked for allowing “the woman Jezebel” to practice immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols. This may be a reference to a female cult within the Church or simply a heretical prophetess in the Church.

Bibliography C. M. Breyfolge, “The Religious Status of Woman in the OT,” BW, XXXV (1910), 405-419; “The Social Status of Women in the OT,” BW, XXXV (1910), 107-116; E. McDonald, The Position of Women as Reflected in Semitic Codes of Law (1931); E. Deen, All of the Women of the Bible (1955); F. Zerbst, The Office of Women in the Church: A Study in Practical Theology (1955); R. C. Prohl, Woman in the Church (1957); H. Lockyer, The Women of the Bible (1967); C. C. Ryrie, The Place of Women in the Church (1968); The Role of Women in the Church (1968).