WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. It is not surprising to find that, because of the Heb. lack of precision in mathematics, Biblical metrology (the determination of distances, capacities, and weights) is far from being an exact science, and no reliable or coherent system has been worked out. Evidence is insufficient and often ambiguous; systems varied from city to city and from region to region. As trade developed beyond simple barter in primitive times, it became necessary to develop some kind of system to determine the quantity of goods involved. The earliest measurements were related to well-known objects, such as the number of grains of cereal or the eggs of a certain fowl; measurements of length were related to parts of the body such as finger, palm, span, and the distance between the tip of the middle finger and the elbow. Distances were related to the distance a person could walk in a day, or the distance traveled by an arrow, etc. Stones came to be used very early as a standard for weighing.

The Hebrews recognized the importance of exact weights and measurements in the commercial, ethical, and legal life of the nation (cf. Lev 19:35, 36; Deut 25:13-16; Prov 11:1; 20:10). The systems they developed, though not uniform, were influenced by the civilizations of the ancient Near E that had existed long before the appearance of the Hebrews (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Canaanite) and in later times the Pers., Gr., and Rom. systems. The Levites had official responsibility for “all measures of quantity or size” (1 Chron 23:29). The Talmud contained strict regulations for the business world concerning honesty of measurements. Present information concerning Israelite metrology comes from a number of sources such as the Bible itself, the Talmud, the treatise of Epiphanius on weights and measures (a.d. 392), Herodotus, Josephus, and the archeological evidence from Pal. and surrounding nations.

I. Measures of length

The universal practice of ancients was to name the commonest measure of length from the limbs of the human body, particularly the arm and hand.

A. Cubit. The cubit (אַמָּה֒, H564; Gr. πῆχυς, G4388; Lat., cubitus) is the principal unit of linear measurement used in the Bible. Hebrew linear measurements were based upon the Egyp. system. The cubit was the length of the forearm measured to the tip of the middle finger. Since the length of the human arm varies from person to person, there was no absolute cubit standard. The length usually varied from seventeen to eighteen inches. This “natural” cubit is called in Deuteronomy 3:11 “the cubit of a man.” It was used in reference to the height of a man (1 Sam 17:4), the depth of water (Gen 7:20), and approximate distances (John 21:8). A more precise unit would be required in the work of building, such as the ark (Gen 6:15, 16), the Tabernacle (Exod 26-27), the Temple and its furnishings (1 Kings 6:7; Ezek 40-43), and the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 3:13). There were longer and shorter cubits, as in Babylon and Egypt. In Mesopotamia the cubit of Khorsabad was 4/5 the length of the “royal” cubit of 19.8 inches; the two Egyp. cubits measured 20.65 and 17.6 inches. Ezekiel 40:5 specifies a cubit which was “a cubit and a handbreadth,” i.e. of seven palms rather than six. The Siloam Inscr. offers objective evidence as to the length of the cubit, as it states that the tunnel was 1200 cubits long. By actual measurement it is 533.1 meters (1749 ft.), making the cubit 17.49 inches. Additional confirmation of a cubit of about 17.5 inches is derived by calculation from the dimensions in cubits of the “molten sea” of Solomon’s Temple (1 Kings 7:23-26; 2 Chron 4:2-5) coupled with its capacity figured in baths. There is an unverifiable rabbinical tradition that samples of the standard cubit were kept in the Temple. Cubit measures are used extensively in the OT: to give the dimensions of Noah’s ark (Gen 6:15), the Tabernacle and its furnishings (Exod 25-27), the size of the bed of Og king of Bashan (Deut 3:11), the size of Goliath (1 Sam 17:4), Solomon’s Temple and its furnishings (1 Kings 6:2-7:38), the height of the gallows erected by Haman (Esth 5:14; 7:9), the dimensions of the city, Temple, and land in Ezekiel’s visions (Ezek 40:5-43:17), the image of gold erected by Nebuchadnezzar on the plain of Dura (Dan 3:1), the flying scroll of Zechariah’s vision (Zech 5:2).

B. Reed. The reed (קָנֶה, H7866) used in Ezekiel’s description of the Temple (Ezek 40:3, etc.) and tr. as “rod” (κάλαμος, G2812) in Revelation 21:15, “reed” KJV, was an instrument for measuring rather than a unit of measurement. The “measuring line” (Amos 7:17; Zech 2:1) and the “line of flax” (Ezek 40:3) were also measuring instruments rather than units of measurement. It is remarkable how many ruins of large public buildings can be measured in whole numbers of cubits of about 17.5 inches and in reeds equal to six such cubits. A palace building at Megiddo comprising part of Stratum IV must have been intended to be fifty cubits square. The platform of the citadel at Lachish was twelve reeds square; the base of the gate tower at Tell en-Nasbeh was five reeds square.

C. Span. The span (זֶ֫רֶת, H2455) was the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the little finger with the hand extended and the fingers apart. It was half the common cubit (Exod 28:16; 1 Sam 17:4). The Vul. mistakenly trs. it as palmus which has caused confusion with the following term (handbreadth). The ephod (Exod 28:16) and the breastpiece (Exod 39:9) were a span square. Goliath’s height was six cubits and a span (1 Sam 17:4).

D. Handbreadth or Palm. The handbreadth or palm (טֶ֫פַח, H3255, was the breadth of the hand at the base of the fingers, generally considered to be a sixth of a common cubit (and 1/7 of a “sacred” cubit) which would be 7.404 centimeters or 2.915 inches (Exod 25:25; 1 Kings 7:26; 2 Chron 4:5; Ps 39:5; Ezek 40:5). It was the equivalent of “four fingers” (1 Kings 7:15).

E. Finger. The finger (אֶצְבַּע, H720) was the smallest subdivision of the cubit (as in Egypt), 1/4 of a handbreadth. It occurs only in Jeremiah 52:21 where the thickness of two hollow pillars is given as four fingers. It is mentioned frequently in the Talmud.

F. Gomed. The gomed (גֹּ֫מֶד, H1688) is mentioned only once and is tr. “cubit” (Judg 3:16). It is the length of a dagger rather than a sword and could not be a “cubit.” The LXX trs. it “span” (σπθιθαμῆς), which is prob. correct, as the context requires a short dagger. The Vul. trs. as palmae manus (palm of a hand). At most it could be 2/3 cubit or four handbreadths. Some modern scholars consider it to be a “short cubit.”

Based on a standard cubit of 17.5 inches, the linear measurements of the OT may be summarized as follows:

G. Graeco-Roman units

1. Cubit. The cubit (πῆχυς, G4388), mentioned in the NT (Matt 6:27; Luke 12:25; John 21:8; Rev 21:17) is prob. 17.5 inches, since the Romans reckoned the cubit as 1 1/2 times the Rom. ft. of 11.66 or 17.49 inches.

2. Fathom. The fathom or “arm-stretch” (ὀργυιά, G3976), a measure for depth of water (Acts 27:28), was equal to about six ft. (if six Gr. ft. = 72.9 in.).

3. Stadion (Furlong). The stadion (pl. stadia) (RSV) or furlong (KJV) (στάδιον, G5084), a Rom. measure, contained 400 cubits which would be 202 1/2 yards or 1/8 Rom. m. (Luke 24:13; John 6:19; Rev 14:20).

4. Mile. The Rom. m. (μίλιο) was 1,620 yds. (Matt 5:41). In the E provinces of the Rom. empire a slightly longer m. was used, equal to c. 1/4 of the Pers. parasang.

H. Distance between points. Traveling distances and the distance between two points are expressed in what would be imprecise and vague terms to modern man. The step or pace (פֶּ֫שַׂע, H7315) is mentioned but once, and that as a metaphor: “there is but one step between me and death” (1 Sam 20:3). Distances traveled were not reckoned by m. or by hours but vaguely as a day’s journey (Num 11:31; 1 Kings 19:4; Jonah 3:4; Luke 2:44), or three days’ journey (Gen 30:36; Exod 3:18; Num 10:33; Jonah 3:3), or seven days’ journey (Gen 31:23; 2 Kings 3:9). In Genesis 35:16 and 2 Kings 5:19, the distance is expressed as “an extent of country,” which means only “some distance,” or “a short distance.” It can be estimated that under ordinary conditions twenty to twenty-five m. could be traversed in a day. A Sabbath day’s journey (ὁδός σαββάτου) is the distance between Mount Olivet and Jerusalem (Acts 1:12). According to Josephus this distance was six stadia or 1,237.8 yards. A rabbinical rule derived from Numbers 35:5 set the distance permissible for Sabbath travel at a little over 1/2 m. Exodus 16:29 forbids a person to leave his “place” on the Sabbath. Joshua 3:4 recorded that the distance between the Ark and the people was 2,000 cubits (c. 3600 ft.), and since some could go to the Ark to worship on the Sabbath, it is assumed that a Sabbath day’s journey was 2,000 cubits. There are also other distances indicated, such as the distance of a bowshot (מְטַחֲוֵ֣י קֶ֔שֶׁת, Gen 21:16) and a furrow’s length (מַעֲנָ֖ה, 1 Sam 14:14; Ps 129:3). Two Gr. measures of distance between points are found in the books of Maccabees. Bethsur is said to be about five schoinoi from Jerusalem (2 Macc 11:5). The schoinos was an ancient Egyp. measure which in the Ptolemaic period was equal to c. 3 3/4 m. The stadion is mentioned several times (2 Macc 12:9, 10, 16, 17, 29); the Alexandrian stadion measured a little more than 202 yards.

II. Measures of area

It was a widely practiced custom in ancient times to state land areas in terms of what a yoke of oxen could plow in one day, or the amount of seed required to sow a given area.

A. Egyptian. The cubit (mḥ) was used in Egypt for determining areas. A piece of land one cubit wide and one hundred cubits long was considered as a cubit in area. A hundred cubits (an area of one hundred cubits square) was a sṯ’t, and was equal to roughly 2/3 acre.

B. Mesopotamian. Land was measured in Babylonia and Assyria by the area a team of oxen could plow in a day. This area was defined as 6,480 square cubits (or 20.4 in.) or about 4/10 acre. Land was also measured according to the quantity of grain necessary to sow it; thus one finds such expressions as an imeru of land. Area measures varied in different times and places.

C. Israelite. There are no terms in Heb. for measurement of area. Rather the lengths of the sides or a rectangle or square or the diameter and circumference of a circular area are given (1 Kings 6:2f.; 7:23; 2 Chron 4:1, 2; Ezek 40:47, 49; 41:2, 4, etc.). The acre (צֶ֫מֶד, H7538) means “stick” or “yoke” and represented the amount of land which a team of oxen could plow in a day (1 Sam 14:14; Isa 5:10). In the KJV מַעֲנָה, H5103, is tr. “acre” (RSV, “furrow’s length”). Land was also measured by the amount of grain required to sow it (Lev 27:16; 1 Kings 18:32). Elijah dug a trench around the altar on Mount Carmel large enough to contain two seahs (“measures,” KJV and RSV) of seed (1 Kings 18:33). It is difficult to determine the size of the trench. Leviticus 27:16 does not seem to refer to the value of a field at fifty shekels per homer of barley needed to sow it, for it would mean that a vast area could be bought for a ridiculously low price. The v. prob. refers to the grain to be harvested and is thus an estimate of the value of the field and not of its area. Numbers 35:4, 5 describes the size of the pasture lands of the levitical cities. Verse 4 says the lands are to extend outward from the wall of the city 1,000 cubits all around, but v. 5 seems to describe a square area with sides of 2,000 cubits. If taken literally, there would be no space left for the city in the middle of the square area. The solution is that the 2,000 cubits of v. 5 represent the frontage of the specified depth of 1,000 cubits which means that the 2,000 cubit square is not the area of the pasture lands, but is a square enclosing the city and making the frontage of the pastures on each of the city’s four sides. From data in the Mishnah, Benzinger calculated that a seah was equal to 784 square meters, or .193 acres; following the same proportion, a homer would be 5.79 acres.

D. Roman. The Lat. jugum (yoke, team) was used to describe the area plowed by a team. It was later defined as a jugerum of 28,800 square (Rom.) ft., or 5/8 acre. It has been calculated that 3 3/5 seahs were required to sow one jugerum of land in the Graeco-Rom. period which would be .173 acres. The Rom. furrow (actus) was 120 Rom. ft. in length, and land was measured according to the square actus.

III. Measures of capacity

Just as the linear measures of cubit, finger, and span were derived from various parts of the human body, so also the ancient units of capacity were originally non-specific, and their names were taken from terms commonly used in the home or in commerce, such as the more imprecise “bowlful” (Judg 6:38; Amos 6:6) and “handfuls” (1 Kings 20:10); to more definite terms such as the homer, which is by derivation an “ass-load”; the hin, which is a pot; the omer, which is a sheaf; and the ephah, which is a basket. The standard measure of capacity in ancient Egypt was the ḥḳt, and is considered to be 5.03 liters, about 1 1/4 American gallons and was used to measure grain or metal. The “hin” jar (hnw) which was 1/10 of a ḥḳt was used to measure certain liquids such as beer, milk, and honey, as well as being a dry measure; it amounted to c. 0.503 liters, or slightly more than a pint. There was wide variation in Mesopotamian standards as judged by the many names for measures of capacity which are found in Sumerian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Nuzian texts. The basic measure of capacity was prob. the qa, equivalent of the Sumer. sila; it has been estimated to be between 1.004 liters and 1.34 liters. Another standard measure of capacity was the sutu of ten qas (c. 13.4 liters or 1 1/2 pecks) and the imeru (which means “ass,” and represented the normal load carried by this animal) which is considered to be 134 liters or 3.8 bushels; this term is found in Middle Assyrian and Nuzian texts. There is not sufficient evidence to determine the Canaanite units of measure, though they were prob. like the Mesopotamian system. The ḥmr (homer) was a unit of dry measure, as well as the ltḥ (lethech). The lg (log) was a nother unit of measure encountered in Ugaritic lit. The Heb. measures of capacity were never standardized and occasionally different names were used to designate the same unit. They were sometimes used to determine both liquid and dry measures, as the liter today. The Rom. measures of capacity were the quartarius, sextarius, congius, urna, and amphora. The major units in the Bible are:

A. Liquid, OT

1. Bath. The bath (בַּת֮, H1427, Gr., βάτος, NT, only Luke 16:6; “measures,” RSV) was the standard Heb. liquid measure. Bath is the Heb. word for “daughter” and suggests that it was the amount of water carried in a jar from the well by the daughters of the household (cf. Gen 24:15). It is said to be equal to the ephah (Ezek 45:11, 14) where both are considered to be 1/10 homer, but this does not imply that the homer was used as a liquid measure. It appears in multiples up to 20,000 (1 Kings 7:26, 38; 2 Chron 2:10; 4:5); it must be a just measure (Ezek 45:10); it was used for water (1 Kings 7:26, 38; 2 Chron 4:5), wine (2:10; Isa 5:10), and oil (2 Chron 2:10; Ezek 45:14). Its capacity has been determined at c. five gallons based on the estimated capacity of broken jars of the 8th cent. b.c. from Tell ed-Duweir (Lachish) and Tell en-Nasbeh (with the inscr. “royal bath,” בת המלך) and from Tell Beit Mirsim marked “bath” (בַּת֮, H1427). Pottery of the Graeco-Rom. period reveals a bath of 21.5 liters. Calculations of the capacity of the “molten sea” in Solomon’s Temple (1 Kings 7:23-26, 38) support the estimate of five gallons. It has also been estimated to be six gallons.

2. Hin. The hin (הִין, H2125) was 1/6 bath. One-sixth of a hin was the minimum a man needed to drink daily (Ezek 4:11). It is c. 3.5-3.9 liters or c. one gallon. A just hin was prescribed (Lev 19:36). It is usually mentioned in ritual, for offerings of wine and oil, in whole amounts (Exod 30:24; Ezek 45:24; 46:5, 7, 11), and in fractions, as the 1/2 hin (Num 15:9; 28:14), 1/3 hin (15:6, 7; Ezek 46:14), and 1/4 hin (Exod 29:40; Lev 23:13; Num 15:4, 5; 28:5, 7).

3. Log. The log (לֹג, H4253, Ugaritic lg, Coptic lok) was the smallest of the liquid measures, equal to 1/12 hin, and is mentioned only in Leviticus 14:10-24 as a measure of oil used in the ritual for the purification of lepers. The LXX trs. it as κοτύλη, about 1/2 pint; and the Vul. trs. as sextarius. The Talmud figured the log as the amount of water displaced by six hens’ eggs, roughly the equivalent of one pint. It is prob. 0.67 pint.

B. Dry, OT

1. Homer. The homer (חֹ֫מֶר֙, H2818) was the standard unit of dry measurement in the OT; it was also called the cor because of the assimilation of two systems. It is from a word meaning an “ass-load.” It has been estimated variously as 3.8 bushels or 6.524 bushels and by older estimates as eleven bushels. It was equal to the cor and contained ten baths or ephahs (Ezek 45:11-14). It was used for fairly large measurements in the OT. It was a large measure for cereals (Ezek 45:13; Hos 3:2), a homer of barley being worth fifty shekels of silver (Lev 27:16). It was used, by way of exception, to measure the quails which fell in the desert. They covered the ground to a depth of two cubits for a day’s march around the camp, and the people gathered the birds all day and all night, and the next day “he who gathered least gathered ten homers” (Num 11:32). The most conservative estimate of the homer would make this thirty-eight bushels, and would reveal the gluttony of the people. “A homer of seed shall yield but an ephah” (Isa 5:10) is the expression of a curse on the land because of the sins of the people.

2. Cor. The cor (כֹּר, H4123) was equal to the homer. The KJV usually trs. it as “measures.” It was a large measure for flour (1 Kings 4:22) and for grain (5:11; 2 Chron 2:10). It was a dry measure, though Ezekiel 45:14 makes cor a liquid measure for oil, and, like the homer, it contains ten baths. The mention of cor for oil in 1 Kings 5:11 should be bath. It has been estimated to contain 3.8-6.524 bushels or 35.4-60.728 gallons. A half-homer of rust-colored stone used about 3,000 years ago in Jerusalem was found in an excavation.

3. Lethech. The lethech (לֵ֫תֶכְ, H4390, Ugar. lth), mentioned only in Hosea 3:2 where Hosea was told to buy the woman for fifteen shekels of silver and a homer and a lethech of barley, (“half homer,” KJV) was a dry measure, possibly Phoen. Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Vul. interpret as 1/2 cor. If correct, the lethech would be between 1.9-3.262 bushels.

4. Ephah. The ephah (אֵיפָה, H406, אֵפָה, Egyp. ’pt) was a dry measure, the one most commonly used in the OT; sometimes tr. “measure,” KJV (Deut 25:14; Prov 20:10; Mic 6:10). It was equal to 1/10 homer (Ezek 45:11), and is estimated from 3/8 to 2/3 of a bushel. In Zechariah 5:5-11, the ephah in the vision denotes a large receptacle closed with a lid and large enough to hold a woman named “Wickedness.” It would have been larger than the usual ephah in order to hold a life-size person. It is mentioned many times (Exod 16:36; Lev 5:11; 6:20; 14:10, 21; 19:36; Num 5:15; 28:5; Deut 25:14; Judg 6:19; Ruth 2:17; 1 Sam 1:24; Isa 5:10; Ezek 45:10; Amos 8:5). The ephah must be just, perfect (Lev 19:36; Deut 25:15); it must not be too small (Amos 8:5; Mic 6:10); there must not be two sizes, large and small (Deut 25:14; Prov 20:10). The RSV inserts “ephah” in some passages for clarification (e.g. Lev 23:17; 24:5; Num 15:4, 6, 9; 28:9, 12, 20, 28; 29:3, 14; “deals” inserted in KJV). Fractions of an ephah are mentioned: 1/16 (Ezek 45:13; 46:14), 1/10 (Lev 5:11; 6:20; Num 5:15; 28:5). It was used to measure flour, meal, barley, parched grain, but never liquids. For liquids, the equivalent was the bath (q.v.).

5. Seah. The seah (סְאָה, H6006, tr. as “measure” RSV, KJV), was a dry measure for flour and cereals (Gen 18:6; 1 Sam 25:18; 1 Kings 18:32; 2 Kings 7:1). It is difficult to determine its size. It has been estimated to be 0.367 bushels or 1.452 pecks. If the šalîš (which means “third” and tr. “measure,” RSV, KJV) of Isaiah 40:12 is the equivalent of the seah, then it is 1/3 ephah or 1/30 of a homer. If so, it would be 0.127-0.217 bushel. Erubin 83a of the Babylonian Talmud says the seah of the desert was equal to the volume of 144 eggs and the seah of Jerusalem was equal to 173 eggs (1/6 greater than the desert seah) and that of Sepphoris (a sacred measure used for religious ceremonies) was equal to 207 eggs.

6. Omer. The omer (עֹ֫מֶר֮, H6685, γόμορ, LXX; from a word meaning sheaf) is found only in the story of the gathering of the manna (Exod 16:13-36) where every man gathered an omer a day. It represented a day’s ration; two omers were to be gathered for the sixth day and the sabbath; one omer was to be kept as a memorial (vv. 32-34). It is identified in Exodus 16:36 as 1/10 ephah, and would thus be equivalent to the issaron or “tenth” of Exodus 29:40. It would be 2.087 dry quarts or 2.299 liters. The omer should not be confused with the homer.

7. Issaron. The Issaron (עִשָּׂרﯴן, H6928) a dry measure, was prob. another name for the omer, and was 1/10 ephah. It is called only a “tenth” in Exodus 29:40, and is found as a measure of meal in the liturgical texts (29:40; Lev 14:10, 21, etc.). The RSV in some passages adds “of an ephah” whereas the KJV uses a more general word “deal.”

8. Kab (Cab). The kab קַב, H7685, (“cab,” KJV) appears only once in the OT (2 Kings 6:25). During the siege of Samaria by the Assyrians an ass’s head was sold for eighty shekels of silver, and the fourth part of a kab of dove’s dung (wild onions, de Vaux) sold for five shekels. The Heb. of this v. is corrupt and it is difficult to determine what it was. Josephus (Antiq. IX. iv. 4) considered 1/4 kab as being a sextarius (ξέστης, G3829). It has been estimated as 1/18 ephah, or 1.159 dry quarts.

9. Handful. In addition to the above definite dry measurements, handful, though not an exact measure, is found often in the OT in such expressions as “handfuls of ashes” (Exod 9:8); “handful of the fine flour and oil” (Lev 2:2); “handful of it” (5:12); “handful of the cereal offering” (Num 5:26); “handful of meal” (1 Kings 17:12); “handful of quietness” (Eccl 4:6); and “handfuls of barley” (Ezek 13:19). The Heb. uses various words which are all tr. “handful”: עָמִיר, H6658, (Jer 9:22 KJV); פִּסָּה, H7172, (Ps 72:16 KJV); קֹ֫מֶץ, H7859, (Gen 41:47; Lev 6:15); שֹׁ֫עַל, H9123, (1 Kings 20:10; Ezek 13:19); מְלֹא חָפְנַיִם (Exod 9:8); מְלֹ֥א כַ֖ף (Eccl 4:6; 1 Kings 17:12); מְלֹא קֹמֶץ (Lev 2:2; 5:12).

C. NT measures. Of the above liquid measures only the bath is found in the NT (Luke 16:6; “measures,” RSV). Of the above dry measures only two appear in the NT: the seah (σάτον, G4929, Matt 13:33) and the cor (κόρος, G3174, Luke 16:7). The saton was a commonly used measure of capacity throughout the Rom. empire. It was the equivalent of 10.91 liters, or 1/2 ephah. The Hebrews used three sata of varying capacity. Other measures found in the NT include:

1. Choinix. The choinix (χοῖνιξ, G5955) was a Gr. dry measure equal to about two dry pints (Rev 6:6, “quart,” RSV; “measure,” KJV).

2. Xestes. The xestes (ξέστης, G3829, Lat., sextarius) was the name of a household vessel and was equal to about 1 1/6 pints (Mark 7:4, “pot” RSV).

3. Metretes (firkin, gallon). The metretes (μετρητῆς) was a liquid measure equal to about 39 liters or 10.3 gallons. The Heb. bath is tr. once in the LXX as metrētēs, twice by chous (equal to 1/12 metrētēs), and three times in one v. by kotulē (equal to 1/12 chous). Josephus makes the bath equal to the metrētēs (Antiq. III. viii. 3; VIII. ii. 9). Based on a jar found at Qumran marked “2 se’ah and 7 log” the metretes has been estimated to be about twelve gallons. It is tr. as “firkin” in the KJV (John 2:6). The RSV trs. two or three metretai as “twenty or thirty gallons” (John 2:6).

4. Modius. The modius (μόδιος, G3654, Lat. modius) was a dry measure equal to about 8.49 liters or 7.68 U.S. dry quarts. It is the bushel of Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33, which is used to mean a vessel which could cover a light. The measure used in Jerusalem during the Hel. and Rom. ages was equal to the Italic modius.

5. Litra. The litra (λίτρα, G3354, Lat. libra) was a Rom. pound of twelve oz., and was used as a measure for both capacity and weight. It was the amount of ointment which Mary used to anoint the feet of Jesus (John 12:3). Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes which weighed c. 100 litras (“pounds” RSV) for the dressing of Jesus’ body (19:39).

6. Artabe. The artabe was a Pers. measure equal to about 1 4/5 bushels. Bel 3 tells that the Babylonians offered twelve artabai (ἀρτάβαι, “measures”) of fine flour and six metretai (μετρήται, from a word meaning “measurer”) of olive oil (“wine” KJV, RSV, following Theod.) daily to their idol Bel as food. The metretes was an Attic measure which contained eight to ten gallons.

7. Bushel. Translation of μόδιος, G3654, (q.v. as Modius) equal to 0.245 American bushels, found in Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33, where it refers to a vessel which would cover a light. Also tr. of ἀρτάβαι in Bel 3 (“measures” KJV), a Pers. measure (q.v. as Artabe).

8. Quart. A tr. of χοῖνιξ, G5955, (choinix, q.v.) in Revelation 6:6 (“measure” KJV); slightly less than a quart.

IV. Measures of weight

The archeological evidence is much more abundant for measures of weight than those of length, area, and capacity. Large numbers of inscribed and uninscribed stone weights representing the shekel and its fractions have been found in Pal. The fact that most of the early Heb. weights which have been discovered were of hard stone is reflected in the general word used in the Bible for weights, the Heb. word for “stone” (אֶ֫בֶן, H74). Even today peasants use field stones as weights, selecting one that is approximately the weight they desire. Another word sometimes used was abnē-kis, “bag-stones,” which indicates that carrying weights in a bag was a well-established custom in early Israel (Prov 16:11; Mic 6:11). Money was not a means of exchange in the earliest period; coinage was not intro. into Pal. until the Pers. period. Transactions were therefore handled through barter (exchange of sheep for grain, or for a given weight of gold or silver). In spite of the abundant archeological information, a definite system of weights has not yet been determined for the ancient Near E. There was a great deal of variation because independent systems varied from region to region and also there was variation according to the goods for sale. The standards varied as much as the British and American ton and pound. Hebrew standards of weight were not exact; variety exists even in weights with the same inscr.

The basic unit of weight for the ancient Egyp. was the dbn (deben) which from known examples varied from c. 13.43 grams to c. 91 grams (0.474 ounces avoirdupois to 3.2 ounces avoirdupois). Other units were the kdt (qedet), retained down to the Rom. period, which was 1/10 dbn, and the š’ty (seal) which was 1/12 dbn. The OT does not mention any Egyp. weights.

The Heb. system was derived from the Canaanites who in turn had received it from the Babylonians. שֶׁ֫קֶל, H9203, is the Heb. word for “to weigh” from which shekel is derived. The shekel was the basic unit of weight common to all ancient Sem. metrologies. In Akkad. it was called the šiqlu. The Assyrian and Babylonian weights did not conform to a general standard but varied greatly through the ages; even a change in government could result in a changed standard of weights. The Mesopotamian weights were calculated on a sexagesimal basis, with the number sixty as the unit of computation (by comparison, the Egyp. had the decimal system which uses ten as the base). Our system of dividing the hour into sixty minutes of sixty seconds each is derived from the ancient Babylonian sexagesimal system. The mina (Akkad. manû, Heb. māneh), talent (Akkad. biltu) and gerah (girû) were the other principal Mesopotamian measures of weight. Thus the Babylonian system may be represented as: 1 talent = 60 minas = 3,600 shekels = 86,400 gerahs; or stated differently: 1 talent = 60 minas; 1 mina = 60 shekels; 1 shekel = 24 gerahs. There also was in the Mesopotamian system a series of “royal” weights, which were double the ordinary weights. One gold shekel had the value of ten silver shekels. In the most commonly used system in Mesopotamia the shekel weighed 0.30 ounces (8.4 grams).

Some of the Assyrian weights were in the form of metal lions, with open mouth and upswung tail with a symbol on the side representing the weight. To make the weight of the cast lions more (or less?) accurate and honest, bits were chiseled off or filled into the hollow form. A bronze lion of 2/3 mina came from the palace of Shalmaneser, king of Ashur. A weight of thirty minas in the shape of a duck and carved from black basalt was found from the palace of Eriba-Marduk II (?; 688-680 b.c.). An early Babylonian stone is inscribed with the words “one half mina true weight” and actually weighs 244.8 grams (which would make the mina 489.6 grams, or approximately 1.08 pounds avoirdupois). Another weight inscribed “one mina true weight” weighs 978.3 grams, c. 2.16 pounds avoirdupois. Obviously these two stone weights represent the light and the heavy mina.

As already stated, the Heb. system was derived from the Canaanites who in return had derived theirs from Mesopotamia so the systems in the two areas are in general the same, except that the Canaanite mina contained 50 shekels. There is Biblical evidence for a 50-shekel mina in Israel prior to Ezekiel. Some of the Ugaritic texts determine weights in “heavy” shekels. At Ugarit the talent was only 3,000 shekels rather than 3,600. One collection of weights at Ugarit referred to in the texts indicates a light shekel to be 0.34 ounces (9.5 grams) and reference is made to a “heavy” shekel which may be double the weight of the other. Ugaritic texts found at Ras Shamra refer to the kkr (Heb. talent, כִּכָּר, H3971) and the tkl (Heb. shekel, שֶׁ֫קֶל, H9203).

The Heb. system of computation of weights followed the decimal rather than the sexa-gesimal system. The basic unit was the shekel; its multiples were the mina and the talent. The mina appears only rarely (1 Kings 10:17; Neh 7:71). There is one confirmation that the Assyrian and Heb. units were equal in some instances. 2 Kings 18:14 says, “The king of Assyria required of Hezekiah king of Judah three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold.” In Sennacherib’s annals of the same incident, the same amount of gold is indicated, though the silver is said to be 800 talents; the similarity between the two accounts is interesting. The Gr. weights were the stater, mina, and talent. The Rom. weights were the drachma, shekel, mina, and talent.

A. Talent. The talent (כִּכָּר, H3971) derives its name from the fact that it is a weight of circular shape. It was the largest of the units and was known to the Babylonians as biltu. The Babylonian talent weighed 30.13 kg. and was divided into 60 minas of 8.37 grams. The word “talent” comes from the Lat. equivalent of the Gr. talanton (meaning “a weight, something weighed”). It was often used in the historical books but seldom in the Pentateuch (Exod 25:39; 37:24; 38:24-29). According to Exodus 38:25, 26, the sanctuary poll tax of a beka (or half shekel) a head paid by 603,550 men amounted to 100 talents plus 1,775 talents; this would make it clear that there were 3,000 shekels to the talent, which could mean sixty minas of fifty shekels but could just as well mean fifty minas of sixty shekels, though the former seems more probable. A two-talent weight from Lagash in the British Museum gives a weight of 66 3/4 pounds per talent, and mina weights from various periods down to the neo-Babylonian show that the weight of the talent was maintained between 28.38-30.27 kg. for many centuries. It is most likely that this same talent was standard in Syria and Pal.

B. Mina (Maneh). The mina (מָנֶה, H4949, tr. “pound” and “maneh” KJV) appears rarely in the OT (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69; Neh 7:70; Ezek 45:12; cf. Dan 5:25). In the Babylonian system one talent = sixty minas; one mina = sixty shekels. The mina is often mentioned in Mesopotamian texts. There is evidence from Ugarit for a mina of fifty shekels. Ezekiel 45:12 defines the mina as sixty shekels. The Heb. of the v. reads “the mina shall be for twenty shekels and twenty-five shekels and fifteen shekels,” which, like the Babylonian mina, would be sixty shekels. The manner of counting is unusual and suggests that there were weights of fifteen, twenty, and twenty-five shekels, the latter being half a mina of fifty shekels as at Ugarit. There is evidence that in pre-exilic Israel the commercial standard was one talent = fifty minas = 2,500 shekels. In Exodus 21:32 a fine of thirty shekels was imposed where the parallel regulation in the Code of Hammurabi imposed 1/2 mina. The ancient mina prob. weighed between 1.213 and 1.323 pounds (550-600 grams); in Ezekiel’s system it would weigh about 1.54 pounds (100 grams). The fluctuation was too great in different times and places to establish a precise value.

C. Shekel. The shekel (שֶׁ֫קֶל, H9203, from the word “to weigh”) was the basic weight used in the ancient Sem. metrologies. However, there was no uniform weight for the shekel. Even weights with the same inscribed notation do not weigh the same, and there were light and heavy, common and royal weights. The shekel has been estimated by various authorities as weighing between 11.3-11.47 grams. Ezekiel 45:12 says the shekel weighs twenty gerahs and the mina is equal to sixty shekels. Fractions of the shekel are found in the OT: 1/2 shekel (Exod 30:13), 1/3 shekel (Neh 10:32), 1/4 shekel (1 Sam 9:8). Ezekiel 45:12 seems to redefine the mina as containing sixty shekels. Abraham paid for the field of Machpelah in “shekels of silver according to the weights current among the merchants” (Gen 23:16). The expression may have been used to distinguish this weight from the “shekel of the sanctuary” of twenty gerahs (cf. Exod 30:13). This distinction may explain why Nehemiah (10:32) says the temple tax was 1/3 shekel whereas in the law it is given as a beka or 1/2 shekel (Exod 38:26). The annual weighing of Absalom’s cut hair, estimated at c. four pounds, refers to the shekel by the standard of “the king’s weight” (2 Sam 14:26). This reference is evidence that even as early as the time of David there was an official standard to which one could be referred. In establishing such a standard, David was only following the practice of other kings. A copy of a stone weight of one mina made by Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 b.c.) was certified as being according to the standard set by Shulgi, king of Ur (c. 2000 b.c.). A large unmarked weight from Tell Beit Mirsim, prob. equal to eight minas, gives a shekel weight of 11.41 grams. The beka is the only weight whose name appears both in the OT and on recovered weights. It is equal to 1/2 shekel (Exod 38:26). Seven stones inscribed bq have been found which range from 5.8 to 6.65 grams, averaging 6.04 grams. Five other uninscribed weights within the same range must also be bekas, making the average weight of the twelve weights 6.02 grams. Therefore reckoned by beka weights the shekel is 12.02 grams, or 2/5 ounces. Thus it would appear that the symbol resembling a figure 8 with an open loop (###UNKNOWN CHARACTER###) found on weights of about twelve grams is a symbol for the shekel. However, this amount seems too large, as the weight from Tell Beit Mirsim (mentioned above) gives a shekel of 11.41 grams and the average weight of seventeen weights inscribed with the shekel mark is 11.53 grams. The shekel mark seems to have been an ordinary representation of the serōr or tied bundle in which lump silver (which was used as a medium of exchange) was carried. Various theories have been proposed to explain the origin of the shekel mark, none of which is satisfactory. It has been suggested as of Egyptian, Babylonian, or Persian origin.

The “shekel of the sanctuary” (Exod 30:13, 24; 38:24-26; Lev 5:15; Num 3:47, etc.) is said to be equal to twenty gerahs. The expression is sometimes tr. as “sacred shekel” and is thought by some authorities to be different from the ordinary shekel. It may refer to a standard weight which was kept in the Temple.

Other weights have been found which add to the confusion in determining the weight of the shekel, as they suggest a system with a slightly larger shekel of about thirteen grams which may have been used for weighing certain types of goods. At Ugarit two words were used for the shekel, tql and kbd, the “heavy” shekel being used to weigh purple linen. A weight was found at el-Jib Pritchard of 51.58 grams, inscribed as “four shekels,” which would yield a shekel of 12.89 grams. A weight with five strokes was found at Gezer, weighing 64.47 grams, which is almost exactly 5x12.89 grams. Also at Gezer three uninscribed weights averaged 64.83 grams (or 5 x 12.96 grams). A weight of 13.4 grams comes from Megiddo and two weights of 13.3 grams from Tell en-Nasbeh. Thus the archeological evidence does not enable one to determine an exact value for the shekel. Variations may be attributed to several factors: a tendency to depreciate standards with the passing of time, setting a new value by official decree, variation between official and unofficial weights, the use of different standards to weigh different kinds of goods, the influence of foreign metrological systems of weights, and occasional variation due to careless cleaning and weighing of weights found. The evidence seems to indicate, however, that the larger the weight, the smaller was the shekel unit contained in it. It can be concluded that there were three standards for the shekel: (1) the temple shekel or nṩp of c. ten grams (.351 oz.) which depreciated to c. 9.8 grams (.345 oz.); (2) the ordinary shekel of c. 11.7 grams (.408 oz.) which depreciated to c. 11.4 grams (.401 oz.); and (3) the heavy shekel of c. thirteen grams (.457 oz.).

D. Gerah. The gerah (גֵּרָה֮, H1743) was 1/20 of a shekel (Exod 30:13; Lev 27:25; Num 3:47; Ezek 45:12) and was the smallest unit of weight. It prob. comes from a word meaning “grain.” In the Babylonian system one shekel=twenty-four gerahs. A weight of 2.49 grams from Sebastiyeh was inscribed ḥmš, prob. representing five gerahs, as another weight from the same place was inscribed “1/4 nṩp, 1/2 s(q)l.” This inscr. tends to confirm the theory that the nṩp is Ezekiel’s shekel of twenty gerahs. The gerah has been estimated to weigh 0.571 grams.

E. Beka. The beka (בֶּ֫קַע, H1325, from the verb to split; “bekah” KJV) is tr. in Genesis 24:22 as “half-shekel” based on Exodus 38:26 where it is said to be “half a shekel, by the shekel of the sanctuary.” The beka is the only weight (1) whose name both appears in the OT and is inscribed on recovered weights, and (2) whose relationship to the shekel is given (Exod 38:26). It seems to have been the oldest standard in Egypt, having been found in prehistoric graves of the Amratian period. It was the usual weight for gold in Egypt. Seven stone weights inscribed bq have been found, ranging from 5.8 to 6.65 grams, averaging 6.04 grams. Five other uninscribed weights which must also be beka weights make the overall average weight of the twelve 6.02 grams. This is slightly heavier than other calculations which would suggest that the average weight of the beka is 5.712 grams.

F. Netseph. The netseph (נצף) is a weight not mentioned in the Bible. Because of its similarity to the Arab. nuṩf (“half”), the name of a coin and a measure, it has been conjectured that the netseph was half of something. It is clearly the name of a standard of weight which was also divided into fractions. A spindle-shaped weight now at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, bears the inscr. “רבע נצף,” “one-fourth of a netseph”; it weighs 2.54 grams. The netseph is half of a unit but apparently the unit is not the Heb. shekel. The average weight of a dozen weights inscribed nṩp is 0.35 ounces (ten grams), and therefore belongs to another system. The name is found in the Ugaritic texts together with the shekel and is perhaps equal to 0.34 ounces (9.5 grams) in the weight system. In the Ugaritic system, then, the nṩp would be a “light” shekel equal to half the “heavy” shekel. It has been suggested that perhaps the netseph weights found in Pal. were lost there by Canaanite traders.

G. Pim. The pim (פִ֗ים, sometimes written pym) is mentioned in a passage that was incomprehensible for a long time until the discovery of a weight of this name (1 Sam 13:21). There were no smiths in the land of Israel; therefore it was necessary for the Israelites to go to the Philistines to sharpen their instruments, “yet they had a file for the mattocks” (KJV). With a discovery of a pim weight a previous conjecture that the pim was the amount of weight paid in silver which was used in the transaction was confirmed so that the RSV trs. the v.: “The charge was a pim for the plowshares and for the mattocks.” It may represent 2/3 shekel. Seven weights bearing the inscr. pim range between 7.18 and 8.59 grams with an average weight of 7.762 grams. The word may be of foreign origin and should not be explained in Heb., but it is the name of an early Heb. weight standard.

H. Pound. Pound is found in the KJV as a tr. of the Heb. word מָנֶה, H4949, (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69; Neh 7:71, 72). It is tr. by the RSV as “mina” (q.v.). It is also the tr. of Gr. mna (μνᾶ, G3641, 1 Macc 14:24; 15:18; Luke 19:13-25) and litra (λίτρα, G3354, John 12:3; 19:39).

I. Qesitah. The qesitah (קְשִׂיטָֽה) was used by Jacob when paying