ISRAEL, RELIGION OF

The religion of Israel begins when the nation was organized in the time of Moses, perhaps in the 13th cent. b.c. An important phase of Israel’s religion to be treated in this article came to an end in 587 b.c. with the destruction of Jerusalem and of the Temple by the Babylonians. For Israel’s religion after that date, see Judaism. The religion of Israel is a uniquely historical religion, founded on mighty acts of God in saving and punishing men and on revelations of God to men in definite times and places. The first part of this article deals with Israel’s religion in the different stages of the nation’s historical development. Religion, more than a series of events, is a complex of beliefs about God and His relationships. Therefore the second part of this article summarizes Israel’s central religious beliefs.

Outline

I. History of Israel’s religion from Moses to fall of Jerusalem

A. In the time of Moses

1. The call of Moses. a. The God of the Fathers. In calling Moses God identifies Himself as “the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” (Exod 3:6). Thus the God of Moses is the same God who promised to bless Abraham’s descendants (Gen 12:1-3), to bring them out of Egypt, and to give them the land of Canaan (Gen 15:13-21).

b. The name of God. In response to Moses’ request, God reveals His name, אֶֽהְיֶ֖ה אֲשֶׁ֣ר אֶֽהְיֶ֑ה, tr. by RSV “I AM WHO I AM,” or more briefly אֶֽהְיֶ֖ה, “I AM” (Exod 3:14). In v. 15 God gives His name as יהוה, H3378, in the third person form of the verb, prob. originally vocalized Yahweh, “he is,” or “he causes to be,” RSV “The Lord.” The new name revealed to Moses became the name of God most used by the Israelites. In time, as fear of frivolous use of the sacred name increased, the title אֲדֹנָי, H151, “my Lord,” was substituted by Jews in reading the Bible. This practice, at least as old as the LXX’s Gr. tr., Kyrios, “Lord,” is imitated by KJV’s and RSV’s “Lord.”

c. Election of Israel. Several times in the call of Moses God refers to Israel as “my people” (e.g. Exod 3:7, 10). In Exodus 4:22 Israel’s special relation to God is expressed by the figure “first-born son.” Among the blessings which Israel is chosen to receive are the knowledge of God (6:7), deliverance from slavery in Egypt (3:8), the privilege of worshiping God (3:12), and possession of the land of Canaan.

2. The Exodus. a. God the deliverer. God delivered the Israelites from slavery in Egypt—that was the pivotal event in the national and religious life of Israel. The Exodus demonstrated God’s election of Israel for a special historical and religious purpose. The Exodus showed that God cared about Israel (Exod 3:7) and that He was able to control the forces of nature and the army of Pharaoh to bring about this deliverance. Thereafter Yahweh for Israel was the one who brought them out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage (Exod 20:2).

b. God’s control of nature. In order to force Pharaoh to let the Israelites go, God controlled the river water, animals (frogs, lice, flies, cattle, locusts, and men), meteorology (hail), and the light of the sun (Exod 7:14-12:30). At the Red Sea God managed the wind and the water to open a passage for the Israelites and to bring back the water again to trap the pursuing Egyptians (13:21-14:29).

3. The covenant at Sinai.

a. The covenant form. The form of God’s covenants with Israel has been illustrated by the study of Hitt. suzerainty treaties coming from about the time of Moses. In these treaties the Hitt. king reminds his vassals of his benevolent acts toward them (cf. Exod 20:2), the requirements which the king imposes are stated (cf. Exod 20:3-17 and the other laws of the Pentateuch), vassals are to appear before the king each year bringing tribute (cf. Deut. 26:5-10), a copy of the treaty is to be placed in the Temple and periodically is to be read publicly (cf. 31:9-13), and blessings are pronounced for those who keep the treaty and curses for those who break it (cf. 27, 28). Finally the covenant at Sinai was sealed by a sacrifice whose blood was sprinkled on the altar and on the people establishing a bond of relationship between God and Israel (Exod 24:6-8).

b. The covenantal requirements—the laws. The laws which Israel must observe to maintain the covenant with God occupy much of Exodus 20-40, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Because of the discovery of parallels to these laws in codes before the time of Moses many scholars now recognize the possibility of Mosaic origin for many of these laws.

1) Theological laws. The commandments of the Decalogue (Exod 20:1-17; Deut 5:6-21) teach that God is one (in contra-distinction to the many gods of the other nations), that He only is to be worshiped, that He cannot be represented by an image made and manipulated by man, that God’s name is not to be used lightly or profanely or for false swearing or magic, and that He is the creator of all. The Decalogue also gives some of God’s attributes: He is a jealous God who brooks no rival, He is a judge who punishes those who hate and disobey Him, He is merciful to those who love Him and keep His commandments. These laws certainly teach monolatry for Israel; monotheism (that there is only one real God) is implicit in the Mosaic laws. Some trace the origin of the Israelite belief in one God to Egyp. Atenism or to the Kenite religion (of which very little is known), but according to the Bible Moses received the knowledge of the one Yahweh by direct revelation.

2) Ritual laws.

a) Sacrifices. For a description of the sacrifices and offerings, see Sacrifice and Offerings. Sacrifices might be called enacted prayers (Ps 141:2). That the offerer placed his hand on the head of the animal to be sacrificed (Lev 1:4) seems to indicate that the offerer identified himself with the animal, which became his representative and substitute. The symbolism of the sacrifices included atonement (sin and guilt offerings), communion and thanksgiving (peace offering), dedication (burnt offering). Incense later was interpreted as symbolizing prayer (Ps 141:2; Rev 8:3, 4). Some, following Wellhausen, have considered this scheme of sacrifices too complex for the time of Moses, but the discovery of related names for various sacrifices among the Ugaritians before Moses has given support to the antiquity of the Mosaic sacrificial laws.

b) Ceremonial uncleanness and purification. Some things which the laws classified as ceremonially unclean or defiling were a dead body (Num 19:11-22), skin diseases including leprosy (Lev 13; 14), secretions connected with reproduction and childbirth (Lev 12; 15), and various animals, particularly animals of prey (Lev 11; Deut 14). Ceremonial uncleanness resulting from the above causes debarred a person from public sacrificial worship. Cleansing from uncleanness was effected by water (Lev 15:5, 8, 10, 11), sacrifice (Lev 12:6-8; 14:10-32; 15:14, 15), blood (Lev 14:25), or fire (Num 31:23). These laws helped to keep Israelites separate from idolaters. Leviticus 11:45 connects ceremonial cleanness with the holiness of God and with the holiness which He demands from His people. Later the language of ceremonial cleansing was applied to moral and spiritual cleansing (Ps 51:7).

c) The tent of meeting and its furniture. For a detailed description of these, see Tent. At the heart of the Tent of Meeting was the Ark, which contained the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments, the basic requirements of the covenant. The Tent reminded the people of the covenant, it illustrated both the availability of God and His holiness, and it served as the center for public sacrificial worship in which the people met with God. Some have suggested that this Tent was only an imaginary half-size retrojection of Solomon’s Temple, but the study of portable shrines in ancient Egypt and of tent shrines among the Carthaginians and Arabs has persuaded many scholars of the essential historicity of Israel’s tent shrine in the wilderness.

d) The priests. On the priests, descendants of Aaron of the tribe of Levi, see Priests and Levites. The primary duty of the priests was to perform various rituals in the worship at the central shrine. For example, the priest placed on the altar the blood and parts of the sacrifice brought by individuals (Lev 1:5, 8) and he also performed the daily morning and evening general sacrifice (Exod 29:38-42). Only the priests could enter the holy place of the Tent, where they presented the bread of the Presence, supplied oil for the lamps, and offered incense. Second, the priests were to teach the people all the statutes which the Lord had spoken to them through Moses (Lev 11:10; Deut 33:10). Finally, the priests acted as judges in difficult cases (Deut 17:8, 9, 12). In general the function of the priest was to serve as a mediator between the people and God.

The first high priest was Aaron. The high priest was to manipulate the Urim and Thummim, which were kept in a pouch of his breastpiece (Exod 28:30). These were small objects which were used to discover the Lord’s will, esp. for the nation and its leader (Num 27:21). Another distinctive duty of the high priest was to enter the holy of holies on the Day of Atonement to sprinkle on the cover of the Ark the blood of the sin offering to make atonement for the people (Lev 16:11, 14, 15, 16).

The Levites were men of the tribe of Levi but not priests of Aaron’s line. They were to carry the Tent and its furnishings as the people journeyed, to set it up when the people encamped, and to guard it (Num 1:47-53; 3:25-37). They were also to assist the priests in the rituals (Num 3:6-9), and they might be called assistant priests. Some have thought that the distinction of different grades of priests did not arise till the time of Ezekiel, but in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Ugarit there were hierarchies of high priest, priests and assistants before the time of Moses. Therefore such a hierarchy in the Mosaic laws certainly is possible and even to be expected.

e) Holy Days.

Sabbath. Both man’s six days of work and the seventh day of rest are related to God’s working in creation and then resting (Exod 20:11). The social significance of rest for servants is emphasized by the reminder that the Israelites were servants in Egypt (Deut 5:15).

Passover and Unleavened Bread (Exod 12:1-28). The sacrifice of a lamb and the presentation of a sheaf of the first fruits of barley acknowledged God as the giver of flocks and crops (Lev 23:9-14). There are many reminiscences of the Israelites’ escape from Egypt in the observance of this feast.

Weeks (Pentecost) (Lev 23:15-21). This was primarily a feast of the wheat harvest (Exod 23:16). Later Jews connected this feast with the covenant (perhaps 2 Chron 15:10-12) and the giving of the Law at Sinai (BT, Pesahim 68b).

Booths (Lev 23:33-43). At this feast, as at Passover and Weeks, all adult male Israelites were supposed to gather at the central sanctuary for celebration and worship. This was the final harvest thanksgiving festival (Exod 23:16). The people lived in booths during the week of the feast in memory of the booths their ancestors had lived in after coming out of Egypt. On the basis of certain Psalms (47; 93; 95-99) some scholars have connected with this feast a celebration of the enthronement of Yahweh on a Babylonian model, but most students question such an enthronement celebration in Israel.

Day of Atonement (Lev 16:1-34; 23:26-32). This was the only fast of the Mosaic law. On this day the high priest sprinkled the blood of a goat on the cover of the Ark to make atonement for the sins of the people. Then he confessed over another goat the sins of the people and sent this goat into the wilderness to Azazel. Perhaps Azazel was a demon of the wilderness, and sending the goat to him may have symbolized removing sins to their evil source. Some followers of Wellhausen have proposed an exilic origin for the Day of Atonement, but now many scholars recognize ancient elements in this ritual which may well go back to Mosaic times.

So the holy days of Israel served to remind them of their history, their blessings, their sins, and above all of Yahweh, their covenant God, their Deliverer, their Provider, and their Forgiver.

3) Ethical and civil laws. The covenant required not only duties to God, but also to men. The Mosaic civil and ethical laws came from God and are constantly related to God, His righteousness, His judgment, and His mercy.

In the Decalogue duties to men (Exod 20:12-27; Deut 5:16-21) are summarized under the following headings: (1) respect for parents. This implies mutual obligations of parents and children. (2) Forbidding of murder. This implies respect for the human person created in the image of God. (3) Forbidding of adultery. This implies respect for the unity of husband and wife as ordained by God, and sexual relations within marriage only. (4) Forbidding of stealing. This implies respect for the owner of objects which he uses for his livelihood or for his enjoyment. (5) Forbidding of false witness. This implies respect for one’s neighbor, whose name, property rights, and life should be maintained by true witness before the judge and God. (6) Forbidding of coveting. This goes beyond ethical law to the psychological and theological source of sin—a person’s desire for something which is not rightfully his. Most of the Mosaic civil laws can be classified under these commandments of the Decalogue.

Positively, the Mosaic laws of the covenant may be summarized in love for God (Deut 6:5) and love for your neighbor as yourself (Lev 19:18; cf. Matt 22:34-40).

c. The covenant broken by the people and renewed by God. Though the Israelites at Sinai had pledged to obey the covenant laws (Exod 19:5, 6; 24:7, 8), they broke the covenant by making and worshiping the golden calf (Exod 32). See Calf. Some have interpreted the calf as another god such as Apis, the bull god of Egypt, a breaking of the first commandment against other gods. Since the worship of the calf was part of a feast to Yahweh (Exod 32:5), others think that the calf was intended as a pedestal on which the invisible Yahweh stood, a breaking of the second commandment against worshiping images. When Moses came down from the mountain, he broke the tablets of the Decalogue as a sign that Israel had broken the commandments of the covenant. Levites killed many of the worshipers of the calf, and the Lord sent a plague on the people. After Moses’ intercession (Exod 32:31, 32) and the mourning of the people (33:4), a new copy of the Decalogue was provided, and God renewed the covenant with His people (34:1-28). This story illustrates the waywardness of man, the sureness of God’s punishment on those who break the covenant, and His grace in renewing the covenant. Some have regarded this story as a retrojection of Jeroboam’s golden calves (1 Kings 12:28, 29), but it is questionable whether Israelites would have invented a story which cast such a blot on their ancestors in the wilderness and on Aaron.

B. During the conquest and settlement of Canaan. This was not only a period of military conflict between Israel and the Canaanites but also of spiritual conflict between the imageless worship of the one Yahweh and the idolatrous worship of the many gods of Canaan.

1. Circumcision. As the Israelites entered Canaan, they renewed the covenant with God by observing the rite of circumcision (Josh 5:2-9). This sign of the covenant went back to Abraham (Gen 17:9-14). They had practiced it in Egypt, as did the Egyptians, but not in the wilderness (Josh 5:4-7) though it is required in Exodus 12:48 and Leviticus 12:3. From their entrance into Canaan circumcision was practiced by the Israelites and distinguished them from the uncircumcised Philistines (Judg 14:3; 15:18). Circumcision was also a symbol of spiritual cleansing (Deut 10:16).

2. Holy war. The conquest of Canaan and Israel’s defensive wars under the judges were wars of Yahweh, holy wars. Those who fought in such wars were sanctified in a state of ritual purity (Josh 3:5). Sacrifices were offered before battle (1 Sam 7:9), and God was consulted (Judg 20:23, 27). Sometimes the Ark was with the army as a sign of God’s presence (Num 10:35, 36; Josh 3:6; 6:6). In the battle Yahweh fought for Israel (Josh 10:14, 42), sometimes using the forces of nature (Josh 10:11) and throwing the enemy into confusion (Judg 7:22). Everything captured was dedicated to God; for example, after the taking of Jericho the captured people and animals were slaughtered, combustible objects were burned, and metals were put in the treasury of the sanctuary (Josh 6:18-24). The reason behind such destruction was that pagans left alive might lead the Israelites into idolatry (Deut 7:16; Num 33:55). Sometimes unmarried women (Num 31:14-18), cattle, and movable goods (Deut 2:34-36) were divided among the victors.

3. Renewals of the covenant. At Mount Ebal Joshua gathered the people for a renewal of the covenant including sacrifice, writing the law upon stones, reading the law, and the pronouncement of blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience—all in the presence of the Ark of the covenant (Josh 8:30-35). Similarly at Shechem in Joshua’s old age the covenant was again renewed with a recital of God’s past dealings with Israel, a call to serve the Lord, the people’s promise to obey God, the recording of the covenant, and its memorialization by a stone (Josh 24:1-27). Such covenant renewals gave religious unity to the confederacy of the twelve tribes of Israel. That there was a temple of Baal-berith, Baal of the Covenant (Judg 9:4), at Shechem may indicate that there was a covenant-making tradition there.

4. Special leaders. a. Judges. These were leaders called by God to rouse and defend the people. They were endowed by God’s Spirit with courage, wisdom, and strength for military leadership against Israel’s enemies (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 14:19). In addition, some of them judged cases, like Deborah and Samuel. Some of the judges were religious reformers, destroying idols (Judg 6:25-32) and calling people to repent and turn back to the Lord (1 Sam 7:3-9). Two judges were also priests, Eli and Samuel.

b. Nazirites. These were people dedicated to God. For the period of their vow they were not to shave or to drink wine or to cut their hair (Num 6:1-21). Samson (Judg 13:4, 5) and Samuel (1 Sam 1:11, 28) were lifelong Nazirites according to the vow of their parents.

c. Prophets. The prophets began to give religious leadership during the period of the Judges. Among them were Deborah (Judg 4:4), Samuel (1 Sam 3:20), and the unnamed prophets of Judges 6:7-10 and 1 Samuel 2:27-36. In the time of Samuel there were bands of prophets who used the playing of musical instruments to induce a state of ecstasy (1 Sam 10:5, 6, 10). In Samuel’s day a prophet was called a seer (1 Sam 9:9), and as one gifted with clairvoyance Samuel could tell Saul where the lost donkeys were (1 Sam 9:20). The prophet also was called a man of God (1 Sam 2:27; 9:6). Of course, the basic work of the prophet was to give God’s word of reproof or warning (Judg 6:7-10; 1 Sam 2:27-36; 3:11-18) or of encouragement (1 Sam 7:3).

5. The conflict of Yahwism and idolatry. At Shittim in Trans-Jordan some Israelites were lured into the worship of Baal of Peor. These Israelites also indulged in promiscuity with Moabite women, for sacred prostitution was part of Canaanite worship. This idolatry and adultery were punished by execution of the offending Israelites (Num 25:1-9).

At Ophrah the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon at a sacred tree and received Gideon’s sacrifice (Judg 6:11-23). Then Gideon built an altar to the Lord which he called Yahweh Shalom, “the Lord is peace” (v. 24). There too was Gideon’s father Joash’s pagan altar to Baal and beside it the wooden symbol of Baal’s consort, the goddess Asherah. According to the Lord’s command, Gideon pulled down the altar of Baal and cut down the symbol of Asherah (6:25-32). Later however Gideon himself made a golden ephod and deposited it at the shrine in Ophrah (8:29). The ephod was perhaps a sacred garment holding the sacred lots which were used to discover God’s will. This golden ephod itself was worshiped, an example of how objects can become idols.

The priests of the shrine at Dan were Levites, descendants of Moses himself (Judg 18:30). Presumably Yahweh was worshiped at this shrine, but in it was an image, an ephod, and teraphim. Teraphim prob. were small images of household gods (Gen 31:19, 34) which were used in divination (Ezek 21:21). Here Canaanite idolatry had contaminated Yahwism.

6. The shrine at Shiloh and the Ark. At Shiloh the Tent of Meeting was set up (Josh 18:1). Thereby Shiloh became the religious center for the Israelite tribal confederacy or amphictyony. There were, of course, other local shrines, e.g. at Gilgal, Shechem, Ophrah, Dan, and Mizpah. At Shiloh an annual vintage festival was observed, perhaps the feast of booths or ingathering (Judg 21:19). To the sanctuary at Shiloh the family of Samuel made an annual pilgrimage (1 Sam 1:3). The boy Samuel served in the sanctuary there with Eli the high priest. To Samuel God gave the warning of coming judgment on the priestly house of Eli because of the sins of his two sons (1 Sam 3:10-15). After defeating the Israelites in the battle of Aphek the Philistines destroyed Shiloh and the shrine of Yahweh (1 Sam 4:3, 4; Jer 7:12).

Eli’s sons carried the Ark from the shrine at Shiloh with the Israelite army to the battle of Aphek. The Philistines defeated the Israelites, killed Eli’s sons, and captured the Ark. The Ark was taken to various Philistine cities, in each of which plague broke out. Also in Ashdod the image of the grain god Dagon fell down and broke before the Ark, a sign of Yahweh’s superiority over the gods of the Philistines. Finally the Philistines in fear sent the Ark back to the Israelites. It was kept at Kiriath-jearim till the time of David (1 Sam 5; 6).

C. During the united monarchy

1. Constitutional monarchy. At first Samuel opposed the people’s request for a king like the surrounding nations. Taking a human king would be rejecting Samuel and the charismatic judgeship and ultimately rejecting God as King. Samuel warned the people that a king would reduce their liberties, take them as servants, and tax them to support his own luxury (1 Sam 8:7-18; 10:18, 19; 12:17).

Finally Samuel helped in making Saul king and drew up a constitution stating the rights and responsibilities of the king (1 Sam 10:25). Probably some of Samuel’s regulations for the king were similar to the law of the king in Deuteronomy 17:14-20. There it is stipulated that the king should be chosen by God, that he should not depend on horses or alliances for security, that he should avoid luxury, and that he should rule in the fear of God, remembering that his subjects are his brothers.

On the basis of royal Psalms such as 2; 72; 110 some have thought that the king was considered divine in Israel as he was in Egypt. But divine kingship is contrary to Israelite conceptions of God as the Creator and Ruler, of man as the created subject of God, and of the king as limited by a constitution and by prophetic criticism.

2. Religion under Saul. God’s selection of Saul was shown in the revelation to Samuel and in controlling the lots which finally indicated Saul. Samuel anointed Saul with oil, a symbol of spiritual empowerment, and shortly thereafter Saul joined some prophets in ecstatic prophesying (1 Sam 10:9-13).

Samuel’s relations with Saul changed from initial support to rejection. Saul failed to wait for Samuel, according to appointment, to offer sacrifices at Gilgal. Samuel warned that because of this disregard for him as God’s representative God would put another king in Saul’s place (1 Sam 13:8-14). Again Saul did not completely carry out God’s command through Samuel to destroy all the possessions and people of the Amalekites. Because of this disobedience Samuel declared that God had rejected Saul from being king (1 Sam 15).

Saul’s relations with the priests also deteriorated. At the battle of Michmash the high priest was with Saul, and Saul sought the guidance of God through the sacred lots manipulated by the priest (14:18, 19, 37, 41 RSV). Later Saul killed the priests of Nob and their families because they had given hospitality and weapons to David, whom they regarded as still in Saul’s employ (22:11-19).

When Saul received no guidance by dreams, the sacred lots, or by prophets, he sought advice from a medium as a substitute for God (28:3-25). Saul himself had banned mediums and wizards following the law of Leviticus 20:27 and Deuteronomy 18:10-11. Saul’s acceptance of the medium’s report of the appearance of Samuel at least shows a belief in a personal, conscious future life.

3. Religion under David (c. 1000-961). David himself had a variety of religious experiences. He believed that God had chosen him to be king, that God had enabled him to overcome Goliath and other enemies of Israel, that God had delivered him from jealous Saul, and that God finally had made him king and given him a much larger kingdom than Saul’s. David also experienced prophetic condemnation when Nathan convicted him of the double sin of adultery with Bathsheba and the murder of her husband Uriah. According to the heading of Psalm 51, David truly repented and experienced God’s forgiveness. The Psalms that are most surely David’s (e.g. Pss 3; 4; 7; 8; 11; 18) show strong confidence that God will help him, deliver him from his enemies, and guide him in the right way.

Through Nathan came the announcement of God’s covenant with David (1 Sam 7:4-17). God promised to give David rest from all his enemies, to establish the kingdom of David’s son who would build the Temple, and to make sure forever David’s royal line and kingdom. This promise was the basis for the hope for the royal Messiah, the ideal king of the house of David.

David made Jerusalem the religious as well as the political capital of Israel. He brought the Ark from Kiriath-jearim to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6). Guided by God he purchased a threshing floor just N of the city and designated it as the site for the future Temple (2 Sam 24:18-25; 1 Chron 22:1). David also gathered materials for the Temple (1 Chron 22:2-19; 29:1-9), organized the Temple functionaries and singers (23:2-4), and gave to Solomon a plan for the Temple (28:11-19).

4. Religion under Solomon (c. 961-922). At the beginning of his reign Solomon deposed Abiathar as high priest and replaced him by Zadok (1 Kings 2:26, 27). In the contest for the successor to David Abiathar had backed Adonijah (1:25), while Zadok had supported Solomon (vv. 38, 39). Thereafter the priests at Jerusalem were regularly descendants of Zadok (2 Chron 31:10; Ezek 40:46).

Solomon hired Hiram from Tyre to supervise the construction of the Temple in Jerusalem, and much of the fine work was done by Phoen. craftsmen (1 Kings 5:10, 18; 7:13, 14). It is therefore not surprising that some features have parallels in ancient temples in Syria like that at Tell Tainat. In general plan the Temple resembled the Tent of Meeting, but in a grander and more permanent form. For a detailed description, see Jerusalem Temple.

The Temple was thought of as the dwelling place of God. At the dedication of the Temple it was filled with a cloud symbolizing the presence of God (1 Kings 8:10; cf. Exod 33:9). His “name,” His presence was there (Deut 12:5, 11). At the same time Solomon in his dedicatory prayer recognized that heaven could not contain God, much less the house that He had built (1 Kings 8:27). The Temple was intended as a focus of prayer (8:28-53), not only for the Israelite but also for the believing foreigner (8:41-43).

Solomon was famous for his wisdom and known for his many proverbs and songs (4:29-34). Two collections of proverbs are attributed to him (Prov 10:1-22:16; 25:1-29:27), and Song of Solomon and Ecclesiastes are associated with him. Though many proverbs at first glance seem to be distilled and memorable common sense, Israelite wisdom had a religious basis, that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Prov 9:10).

Unfortunately Solomon did not follow the law of the king (Deut 17:14-20) forbidding luxury and many wives, and his foreign wives led him into idolatry. He built shrines for his wives’ gods, Ashtoreth of the Sidonians, Milcom or Molech of the Ammonites, and Chemosh of Moab (1 Kings 11:1-8). Such idolatry not only was breaking the first commandment, but also had evil moral and social results. Sacred prostitution was part of the worship of Ashtoreth, and child sacrifice was offered to Molech and Chemosh.

D. Religion in northern Israel

1. Prophetic support of the northern revolt. The prophet Ahijah promised the ten northern tribes to Jeroboam. These tribes were to be broken away from Solomon’s house because Solomon had broken God’s laws, specifically in worshiping other gods. To Jeroboam was promised a lasting dynasty in the northern kingdom, if he would obey God’s commandments (11:29-39).

2. Jeroboam’s golden calves. Unfortunately for Yahwism in the northern kingdom, Jeroboam (c. 922-901) set up golden calves for worship in Bethel and Dan (1 Kings 12:26-33). Jeroboam did not intend to depart from Yahwism, for he stated that the calves represented the God who brought them out of Egypt. Probably Yahweh was thought of as present but invisible above the calf, just as in the Temple in Jerusalem He was present over the cherubim. There was this difference that the cherubim were thought of as servants of God and were never worshiped, while Jeroboam said that the calves represented God and were to be worshiped. Therefore the calves clashed with the commandment forbidding the worship of any image (Exod 20:4-6). Futhermore the bull was associated with other gods by the Egyptians and the Canaanites so that the calves endangered the uniqueness of Yahweh and easily led to syncretism. Jeroboam’s purpose was that Bethel and Dan would replace Jerusalem as centers for corporate worship for northern Israelites. He expelled regular priests and Levites and installed priests who would carry out his religio-political program (2 Chron 11:13-15). These moves broke the religious unity of Israel. For all these reasons prophets (1 Kings 13:1-5; Hos 8:5, 6; 13:2) and the prophetic historians (e.g. 2 Kings 17:16) condemned the calf-worship of northern Israel.

3. Elijah. In most of the incidents of Elijah’s ministry he is the protagonist for Yahweh in the contest with the Tyrian Baal, whose worship was introduced by Queen Jezebel, wife of Ahab king of northern Israel (c. 869-850).

In Zarephath in Phoenicia Elijah miraculously provided food for a widow and healed her son (1 Kings 17:8-24). This demonstration of power in the territory of the Tyrian Baal for a Canaanite woman indicates Yahweh’s universal rule and concern (cf. Luke 4:26).

At Mount Carmel Elijah represented Yahweh in the showdown with the priests of Baal and of his consort Asherah (1 Kings 18). There was no answer to the prayers of the prophets of Baal, but in answer to Elijah’s prayer Yahweh sent fire down to burn the sacrifice. So the assembled people acknowledged that Yahweh was the real God, and the priests of Baal were killed. At the same time Yahweh showed his superiority over Baal (who the Canaanites thought controlled the weather) by sending rain after he had withheld it for three years.

At Mount Horeb God gave to Elijah a demonstration of the ways of revelation (19:9-18). God sent wind, earthquake, and fire, showing his control over natural forces. But God’s message came to Elijah in a still small voice indicating that God also reveals Himself in quiet ways. The contents of God’s message shows that God acts also in history, in this case by judgments on the house of Ahab through Hazael king of Syria and through Jehu who would take the crown in Israel. Also God is concerned with the perpetuation of the faith by raising up a new prophet (Elisha) and by preserving a sizable remnant of the people who are true to Yahweh.

Elijah also condemned King Ahab for seizing Naboth’s vineyard and arranging for the death of Naboth (ch. 21). This courageous condemnation demonstrated that even the Israelite king was subject to God’s law.

The description of the death of Elijah as a departure in a fiery chariot certainly points to a belief in a personal future life where earthly service is rewarded (2 Kings 2:11).

4. Elisha. While Elijah is a grand and lonely figure, his successor Elisha worked in cooperation with other prophets. Elisha was anointed by Elijah and received Elijah’s mantle as signs of endowment with spiritual power (1 Kings 19:16, 19-21; 2 Kings 2:9-14). He served as Elijah’s assistant during the latter’s later years. Elisha is associated closely with the prophetic groups called the sons of the prophets at Bethel (2 Kings 2:3) and at Jericho (2:15), and he was acknowledged as “master” of the group of prophets in Gilgal, for whom he performed some miraculous services (4:42-44; 6:1-7). When prophesying Elisha sometimes required music (3:15), as did other members of the prophetic guilds (cf. 1 Sam 10:5).

Elisha took an active part in the affairs of state. He sent a young prophet to anoint Jehu as king of Israel to bring judgment on the house of Ahab and on Queen Jezebel (2 Kings 9:1-11). Elisha often gave counsel and help to the kings of Israel in their wars against the invading Syrians (6:24-7:20; 13:14-19) and together with Judah against Moab (3:1-27). Elisha also demonstrated Yahweh’s rule over the history and kings of other countries, for example in encouraging Hazael to take the throne of Syria (8:7-15). Elisha even directed the healing of the Syrian general Naaman who had invaded Israel (5:1-27).

Many of Elisha’s beneficent miracles manifested God’s concern for the poor and the sick (4:1-37).

5. Micaiah. Micaiah was one of the prophets consulted by Kings Ahab of Israel and Jehoshaphat of Judah before their battle with the Syrians (1 Kings 22:5-28). Zedekiah, leading four hundred prophets, used iron horns to symbolize the victory he promised over the Syrians. Only Micaiah warned of defeat and death for Ahab, though he knew this message would be unwelcome. Events showed that Zedekiah and his four hundred were false prophets and that Micaiah had brought the true word of the Lord.

6. The revolt of Jehu (c. 842-815). As pointed out above, Jehu was anointed by a prophet and commissioned to execute judgment on the house of Ahab (2 Kings 9:1-11). Jehu first removed Jezebel and the descendants and even the friends of Ahab, a wholesale slaughter which Hosea later condemned (Hos 1:4). By these acts Jehu won the support of the Rechabites, who tried to maintain the desert way of life in order to preserve pure and original Yahwism (2 Kings 10:15, 16; cf. 1 Chron 2:55; Jer 35). Then in Samaria Jehu assembled the priests, prophets, and worshipers of Baal in Baal’s temple and killed them all. Though Jehu wiped out Baalism, he maintained the worship of the golden calves (2 Kings 10:28, 29).

7. Amos. Amos, though a Judean, was called to preach God’s message in Bethel, the chief shrine of northern Israel. Under Jeroboam II (c. 786-746) in Israel there was luxury for some, injustice for the poor, and a booming performance of feasts and sacrifices.

Amos saw God as sovereign over nature (4:6-9; 5:8) and over history (2:9, 10), and as the righteous Judge of the nations (1:3-2:8). God’s primary requirement from man, according to Amos, is justice (5:24) which Amos often saw denied to the poor of Israel.

Amos criticized and reinterpreted some assumptions of Israelite popular religion. Many Israelites thought that God’s election of Israel meant that God was not interested in other nations and that Israel’s security was inviolable. Against such chauvinism Amos preached that God was concerned also with the movements of other peoples, like the enemy Philistines and Syrians (9:7). God’s election of Israel to special religious privilege meant that the judgment of their iniquities would be heavier (3:1, 2).

Another assumption of popular Israelite religion was that the proper performance of ritual was God’s principal requirement and that such sacrifices guaranteed God’s favor. On the contrary Amos asserted that God hated offerings without righteousness in life (5:21-25). The cult centers, Bethel, Gilgal, and Dan, where the rich drank wine, indulged in prostitution, and oppressed the poor, would be destroyed, warned Amos (2:7, 8; 5:5-7).

Many Israelites thought that the Day of Yahweh meant victory over their enemies. On the contrary, said Amos, the day of God’s judgment will bring darkness on Israel (5:18), and Israel will go into exile beyond Damascus, i.e. to Assyria (5:27).

According to 9:9-15 Amos, like most other prophets, looked forward to a restoration and prosperity. Some think that this passage is inconsistent with the dark judgment of the rest of the book. Elsewhere also there are gleams of light, such as the hope that God may be gracious to a remnant who will practice justice (5:15).

8. Hosea. Hosea prophesied not only during the prosperity of Jeroboam II but also during the following internal confusion and increasing external pressure from Assyria. Hosea’s wife was unfaithful to him and fell into prostitution and slavery, but Hosea bought her back in continuing love. He saw in his experience with his wayward wife an illustration of God’s experience with unfaithful Israel, who had broken her covenant vows to God by engaging in idolatry and who would be punished and eventually restored to fellowship and favor with God.

According to Hosea God wants from men: faithfulness (2:20; 4:1; 5:7; 14:4), steadfast love or kindness (same word in Heb.) (2:19; 4:1; 6:6; 12:6), and knowledge of God (4:1; 5:4; 6:3). Love is a characteristic of the covenant-keeping God Himself (11:1-4; 14:4).

Hosea condemns Baal worship (which he calls adultery) and also the empty formalism and syncretism of the supposed worship of Yahweh. He maintains that the calves, which the Israelites worship, are not God and are rejected by Yahweh (8:5, 6; 10:5; 13:2). The many altars of the Israelites have been places for sin, not true worship, and Yahweh is not pleased with their sacrifices and feasts (8:11, 13). Some Israelites observe the feast days of Baal and forget Yahweh (2:13). At the idolatrous shrines men consort with cult prostitutes, and women commit adultery also (4:13, 14). Israel does not realize that food and wealth come from Yahweh, not from Baal (2:8).

Because of these religious and social sins Hosea warns that the Israelites will go into captivity to Egypt and to Assyria (9:3, 6 RSV; 10:6; 11:5). Samaria’s king will perish (10:7), and many of its people will be slaughtered (13:16).

Much more than Amos, Hosea speaks of Israel’s future return to God (14:1, 2) and to their homes (11:10, 11) and of God’s spiritual and physical blessings on them (14:4-7).

9. Religious interpretation of the fall of Samaria. The writer of 2 Kings 17:7-23 lists religious sins as the ultimate reason for the fall of Samaria (722) and the captivity of the Israelites in Assyria. The Israelites had despised God’s statutes and His covenant and had refused to listen to the warnings of the prophets. They had worshiped other gods, even sacrificing their children. They had practiced magic and worshiped the golden calves. Therefore the Lord was angry and removed the northern Israelites.

E. Religion in the southern kingdom. Judah was more stable and less open to foreign influences than Israel in religion as well as in politics. In Judah there were faithless and idolatrous kings, but there were more faithful and reforming kings than in Israel. There were true prophets of Yahweh in the N, but there were more such prophets in the S, and their messages have been more fully preserved.

1. Rehoboam (c. 922-915). This king forsook the law of the Lord (2 Chron 12:1), and under him the Judeans worshiped idols on the high places and at sacred trees (1 Kings 14:23, 24), even making use of male cult prostitutes. When Shishak of Egypt invaded Pal. and the prophet Shemaiah rebuked the idolatry of Judah, Rehoboam and the princes humbled themselves before God (2 Chron 12:5, 6).

2. Asa (c. 913-873). King Asa removed idolatrous images and altars and halted the pagan practice of cultic prostitution (2 Kings 15:12; 2 Chron 14:3-5). He even deposed his mother from her position as queen mother because of her idolatry and burned the image of the goddess Asherah which she had made (1 Kings 15:13). Encouraged by the prophet Oded (2 Chron 15:1-7), he summoned the people to renew their covenant with God, and they promised to seek the Lord with all their heart (15:9-15). Asa, however, imprisoned the seer Hanani, who had upbraided him for relying on help from Syria instead of on God during a war against the northern kingdom (16:7-10).

3. Jehoshaphat (c. 873-849). Good King Jehoshaphat also removed pagan shrines and obeyed God’s law (1 Kings 22:46; 2 Chron 17:6). He inaugurated a program of popular religious education by sending out princes, Levites and priests with the Book of the Law to teach the people (2 Chron 17:7-9). Furthermore Jehoshaphat reorganized the judicial system of Judah on the basis of judging honestly with the Lord’s guidance. In addition to local judges Jehoshaphat appointed Levites, priests, and heads of families as a supreme court in Jerusalem to judge cases of murder and conflict of laws (2 Chron 19:4-11). Before a battle against the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites Jehoshaphat prayed for God’s help, and a Levite Jehaziel under the power of the Spirit promised victory (ch. 20). On the other hand, the prophets Jehu (19:1-3) and Eliezer (20:37) condemned Jehoshaphat for cooperating with the apostate kings of northern Israel.

4. Athaliah (c. 842-837). Since Queen Athaliah was prob. the daughter of Jezebel, it is not surprising that she followed Jezebel’s example and tried to foster Baalism in Judah. She was the wife of King Jehoram. After the latter’s death she counseled her son King Ahaziah to do wickedly like the house of Ahab (2 Chron 22:3). After Jehu killed Ahaziah, she killed all Ahaziah’s sons, except for Joash, and took the royal power herself (2 Kings 11:1-3). Under her patronage there was in Jerusalem a temple of Baal (2 Kings 11:18). To Baal’s temple Athaliah transported some of the treasures from Yahweh’s Temple (2 Chron 24:7). Finally, Athaliah and her Baalism were swept away under the leadership of Jehoiada the high priest of Yahweh (2 Kings 11:13-20).

5. Joash (c. 837-800) and Jehoiada. After he had crowned the young Joash, Jehoiada the high priest made a covenant with the people that they would be the Lord’s people (2 Kings 11:17). The people destroyed Baal’s temple and killed his priest (11:18). Yahweh’s Temple was repaired, and its worship was reorganized (2 Chron 24:12-14). After Jehoiada died, Joash fell into idolatry and killed Jehoiada’s son Zedekiah because of the latter’s rebuke (24:17-22).

6. Ahaz (c. 735-715). King Ahaz refused to trust in the Lord, as Isaiah urged him to do, when Jerusalem was besieged by the armies of Israel and Syria (Isa 7:1-12). Instead he used some of the treasure of the Lord’s Temple to buy the help of the king of Assyria (2 Kings 16:7, 8). In Jerusalem he set up a new altar copied from an Assyrian model (16:10-13). Yahweh’s brazen altar he used for divination,