PROVINCE (מְדִינָה, H10406, district; ἐπαρχεία, G2065, province). An administrative district of government.

1. Definition. Originally the term designated the sphere of administrative action or duty exercised by an appointed official over a conquered territory, but later the term was used of the geographical territory itself.

a. Use in the OT. The Heb. and Aram. term מְדִינָה, H10406, occurs fifty-six times being used only four times of Israelitish rulers over the districts during Ahab’s day (1 Kings 20:14, 15, 17, 19) whereas the term came into vogue with the advent of the Babylonian and Persian administrative districts (Ezra 2:1; 4:15; 5:8; 6:2; 7:16; Neh 1:3; 7:6; 11:3; Esth 1:1 et passim—over thirty occurrences; Eccl 2:8; 5:8; Lam 1:1 [ASV]; Ezek 19:8 [ASV]; Dan 2:48, 49; 3:1, 2, 3, 12, 30; 8:2; 11:24). Predominantly in the canonical books in the LXX it is tr. by χώρα, G6001, (country) (also used regularly in the Maccabean books); but also it is tr. by σατραπεία (satrapy) in Esther 1:3; 8:9; βασιλεία, G993, (kingdom, dominion) in Esther 8:5, 13; and ἐπαρχεία, G2065, (province) in Esther 4:11.

b. Use in the NT. The term ἐπαρχεία, G2065, is used only two times in the NT. First is Acts 23:34, where Felix asked Paul to what province he belonged. Second is Acts 25:1, where the newly appointed procurator Festus had arrived in his province. It can be seen that in NT times the term “province” designated the geographical territory to be governed.

2. History of Roman provincial administration

a. From 509 to 241 B.C. Until the first Punic War all the provinces were in Italy. The consuls (two yearly elected civil and military magistrates) would campaign and the two praetors (juridical magistrates) would rule; one was in charge of the administration of justice, the other assumed jurisdiction among the aliens.

b. From 241 to 27 B.C.It was not until Sicily was conquered in 241 b.c. that Rome had its first province beyond the Italian peninsula (cf. Cicero In Verrum ii. 1. 2). Although Sardinia was seized from Carthage in 238 b.c. it was not until 227 b.c. that she became a province, at which time two more praetors were added; one to administer in Sicily, the other in Sardinia. There was an increase in the number of praetors to six in 197 b.c. to administer Spain, and to eight by Sulla (c. 138-78 b.c.), who required them to remain in Rome as judges during their year as praetors and to proceed to the governorship of the provinces after their year of office. Sulla introduced this practice because of the increase of provinces and because of the unwillingness of some men (e.g. Cicero) to serve abroad. During Sulla’s day only those men who headed up the important provinces were given the title of proconsul, but after Sulla all governors seemed to be ranked as proconsuls. There were increases in the number of praetors to sixteen during the remaining years of the Republic.

c. From 27 B.C. to A.D. 180. The accession of Augustus (27 b.c.) marked the advent of the Principate. There were changes in administration. During the republican era all provinces were under the jurisdiction of the Senate but beginning with Augustus the provinces were divided into three classes. First, the ten older provinces which had no need of a large military force were left under the jurisdiction of the Senate. Generally the administration was basically a continuation of the post-Sulla era of the republican rule. The senatorial governors had the title of proconsul and were appointed for one year having no military power (the two large provinces of Asia and Africa were held by ex-consuls while the remaining eight provinces were held by expraetors). The accuracy of Acts 13:7 is attested by designating Sergius Paulus a proconsul since Cyprus was a senatorial province from 22 b.c.

Second, twelve provinces (and any provinces added subsequent to 27 b.c.) came under the imperial administration. These were frontier provinces needing a large military force under the leadership of Augustus, the commander and chief of all armies. The governor of an imperial province was a legate of the emperor (legatus Augusti pro praetore). These legates were chosen by the emperor for an indefinite term of office and were in charge of the military. There were two classes of legates: (1) those of consular status who were over larger and more important provinces; (2) those of praetorian status who were over provinces which required no more than one legion.

Third, there were the provinces which were under a special form of provincial administration because of the nature of their rugged terrain (e.g. Alpine districts), their underdeveloped state (e.g. Mauretania and Thrace), or the stubborn character of the people (e.g. Judea and Egypt). They were regarded as imperial provinces governed by an imperial procurator or praefectus of the equestrian rank chosen by the emperor and responsible to both the emperor and the neighboring legate.

3. Principal Roman provinces. The following list of provinces are those mentioned in the NT. They are listed in the order of their admission to the Rom. empire in each of the categories. Of course, some of the imperial provinces had been senatorial provinces before 27 b.c.

a. Senatorial provinces. Macedonia (146 b.c.); Achaia (146 b.c.)—it was temporarily joined (a.d. 15-44) to Macedonia as an imperial province; Asia (133 b.c.); Bithynia (74 b.c.); Cyrene (74 b.c.); Crete—united with Cyrene (67 b.c.); Pontus—united with Bithynia (64 b.c.); Illyricum (27-11 b.c.); Cyprus (22 b.c. but annexed in 58 b.c.).

b. Imperial provinces. First class ruled with consulars. Syria (64 b.c.); Cilicia (64 b.c.—united with Syria 22 b.c.-a.d. 72); Illyricum (11 b.c.); Dalmatia (a.d. 9).

The second class ruled with praetors. Pamphylia—part of Cilicia (102-44 b.c.), united with Asia (44 b.c.-a.d. 43), and united with Lycia (a.d. 43); Egypt (30 b.c.); Galatia (25 b.c.-a.d. 72—after which time it was united with Cappadocia and Armenia Minor under a legate of consular rank); Lycia (a.d. 43-69).

The third class ruled with procurators praefectus. Judea (a.d. 6-41, 44-70)—part of Syria 63-40 b.c.; Cappadocia (a.d. 17-72—after which it was united with Galatia and Armenia Minor under a legate of consular rank).

4. The province of Judea. In 63 b.c. Judea became a part of the province of Syria, but in 40 b.c. it was assigned as a part of Herod the Great’s kingdom. With the exception of Herod Agrippa I’s rule over it (a.d. 41-44) (Jos. Antiq. xix. 5. 1 § 274, 275; 8. 2 § 342; War ii. 11. 5 § 214, 215) Judea again became a province with the deposition of Archelaus in a.d. 6 to the War of a.d. 66-70. The procurators resided in Caesarea (Jos. Antiq. xviii. 3. 1 § 55-59; War ii. 9. 2 § 171; Acts 23:23, 33; 25:1) in Herod the Great’s palace (Acts 23:35). In the administration of justice the emperor entrusted the praefectus or procurators with full powers including the infliction of capital punishment (Jos. War ii. 8. 1 § 117). Although the Sanhedrin could pass sentence, it was the prefect who executed the sentence of capital punishment (John 18:31; Acts 25:1-12).

The province of Judea was under Syria’s consular legate as seen in Varus’ intervention shortly after Herod the Great’s death (Jos. Antiq. xvii. 9. 3 § 222; War ii. 2. 2 § 17; Antiq. xvii. 10. 9, 10 § 286-298; War ii. 5. 1-3 § 66-79; cf. also Antiq. xvii. 11. 1 § 299-303; War ii. 6. 1 § 80-83). In a.d. 36 Vitellius took charge of Judea, ordering Pilate to report to Tiberius (Jos. Antiq. xviii. 4. 2 § 88, 89; cf. also Tac. Ann. vi. 32).

Bibliography J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung (1881), I, 497-502, 517-567; T. Mommsen, Römische Staatsrechts, 3rd ed. (3 vols.; 1887-1888), passim; T. Mommsen, The Provinces of Roman Empire, trans. by W. P. Dickson (2 vols.; 1909), passim; G. H. Stevenson, Roman Provincial Administration (1939), passim. D. Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor (2 vols.; 1950), passim; J. Crook, Concilium Principis (1955), passim; E. W. Saunders, “Province,” IDB, III (1962), 940, 941; B. Reicke, The New Testament Era, trans. by D. E. Green (1968), passim; F. F. Bruce, New Testament History (1969), passim; E. Badian, “Provincia,” The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1970), 891, 892 (and for various provinces, ad loc.); A. H. M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, 2nd ed. (1971), passim.