PERFUME. The ancients were fond of sweet perfumes of all kinds (Prov 27:9) and used them in various ways on their bodies and belongings.

1. Terminology. קְטֹ֫רֶת, H7792, (“incense”) is tr. “perfume” by the KJV and RSV (Prov 27:9) and נַ֥פְתִּי from the root “to sprinkle” is tr. “I have perfumed” (KJV, RSV, Prov 7:17). Hebrew רֵיחַ, H8194, means “scent, fragrance” and frequently is used in the OT; however, the regular root for “perfume” is רקח (Ugaritic rqḥ), which appears in several forms. The participle form רֹקֵ֑חַ signifies “perfumer” (KJV “apothecary,” Exod 30:25, 35; 37:29).

2. Manufacture. The sources of perfume, incense, and ointment in the OT were in the vegetable kingdom and the list of such sources (aloes, almug, balm, bdellium, calamus, cassia, cinnamon, etc.) reflects the extent of Heb. trade and commerce (Arabia, India, Persia, Ceylon, etc.). This trade is reflected in OT passages (Gen 37:25; 1 Kings 10:10; Ezek 27:22). Perfume could be produced from sap, bark, flower, or root.

So strong were the better kinds of ointments, and so perfectly were the component substances compounded that they have been known to retain their scent for centuries. Sometimes it was produced in a powdered form (Song of Solomon 3:6), perhaps like a sachet powder. The first maker of perfume mentioned in the Bible is Bezalel (Exod 37:1, 29), and the profession became highly developed in Israel as elsewhere. When Israel asked for a king, Samuel warned that their king, among other demands, would take their daughters “to be perfumers and cooks and bakers” (1 Sam 8:13). Certain sons of the priests were responsible for mixing the perfumes for incense (1 Chron 9:30).

The Bible mentions various containers for perfume and ointments. The dry material was simply kept in a bag (Song of Solomon 1:13), and Isaiah 3:20 mentions “perfume boxes.” The ointment Mary used on Jesus (Matt 26:7) was kept in an alabaster jar.

3. Use. Perfumes and ointments were used to mask the odor of the body, which easily became strong and disagreeable in hot countries; esp. was it used on the feet (Luke 7:38; John 12:3). Mention is made also of anointing the hands (Song of Solomon 5:5) and the body after bathing (Ruth 3:3). At feasts and in religious services, scented oil, sweet-smelling solutions, and incense were used—often in a lavish manner. The psalmist described the anointing oil on the head of Aaron (Ps 133:2) as it flowed over his beard and down on the collar of his robe. Perfume apparently was used on garments (Ps 45:8; Song of Solomon 4:11), as well as being used on couches or beds (Prov 7:17). At the burial of King Asa, it is recorded that he was placed “on a bier which had been filled with various kinds of spices prepared by the perfumer’s art” (2 Chron 16:14). Nicodemus brought about 100 pounds of myrrh and aloes for the burial of Jesus (John 19:39).

The liturgical uses were many and varied (see Incense). In the NT, perfume as an incense is a symbol of the knowledge of Christ (2 Cor 2:14) and the self-sacrifice of Christ (Eph 5:2).

Bibliography Davies, JEA, XXVI (1940), pl. 22, p. 133; R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology, III (1955), 9, 10; G. W. Van Beek, “Frankincense and Myrrh in Ancient South Arabia,” JAOS (1958), 141-152.