OINTMENT. Processed oil, usually perfumed, widely used in the ancient Near E.

1. Terminology. שֶׁ֫מֶן, H9043, (Eccl 7:1; 10:1); KJV trs. as “ointment” often where RSV renders “oil” (e.g., 2 Kings 20:13; Prov 27:9; Isa 1:6); derivatives of רָקַח, H8379, “to mix or compound oil, ointment”: מִרְקַ֫חַת, H5351, “ointment” (1 Chron 9:30; Exod 30:25, KJV); מֶרְקָחָֽה, “pot of ointment” (Job 41:31); תַּמְר֣וּק (from מָרַק, H5347, “to rub, polish”), “things for purification” (Esth 2:3, 9 KJV); “things for purifying” (2:12 KJV). The NT uses μύρον, G3693, (Matt 26:7; Mark 14:3-5; Luke 7:37, 38; KJV, etc.); and “myrrh” (Rev 18:13 RSV).

2. History of usage. It is impossible to determine when people first began to use ointments and cosmetics. Even in the earliest historical periods cosmetics and ointments were commonly used in ancient Egypt for hygienic and magico-religious purposes. The ancient Egyptians bathed frequently, followed by rubbing the body with oils and creams. All classes considered ointments a necessity, not a luxury; there is record of Egyp. workers going on strike because of lack of food and ointments.

Herodotus reported that the Scythians never bathed but plastered their bodies with a sweet smelling substance of thick consistency. The Homeric poems indicate that the Greeks used ointments early to protect the skin. Pliny credited the Persians with the earliest use of perfume; discovered by Alexander in the spoils taken from Darius, it soon was accepted by all classes of Greeks. Xenophon said Pers. queens squandered the tribute of entire towns on their ointments.

The Etruscans introduced Oriental perfumes in Italy, though the custom met with some resistance. In 189 b.c. the censors forbade the sale of unguenta exotica in Rome, but by the time of Seneca perfumes were commonly used in Rome.

3. Preparation

a. Ingredients. Pliny said the recipe for unguents required two ingredients, “The juice and the solid part, the former of which usually consists of various sorts of oils and the latter of scented substances.” Olive oil was the most commonly used base of ointments in Israel. The Egyptians used balanos, radish, colocynth, sesame, bitter almond oils, and animal fats. The Babylonians used sesame oil and animal fats. Castor oil was used commonly by the poor. Fish oil, though known in Egypt and Mesopotamia, prob. was not used in cosmetics. To the oil various perfumes were added, such as bitter almonds, anise, cedar, cinnamon, ginger, heliotrope, peppermint, rose, sandal, etc. Song of Solomon 1:3 and 4:10 refer to the fragrance of the ointments.

b. Process. The knowledge of the techniques employed in making ointments is incomplete. Olive oil was used commonly as the base of ointments and perfumes because it did not evaporate or thicken readily. It was extracted from the olive berries by crushing with mortar and pestle, or with stones under a wooden lever fixed to a hole in the rock at one end and weighted by heavy stones at the other. After cooking, the unguent often was shaped into balls or cones as it solidified. In Egypt and Mesopotamia the unguent cookers were separate artisans, closely associated with barbers, pharmacists, physicians, and priests. They formed a guild in the days of Nehemiah, and there was a special street for unguent makers in ancient Jerusalem. In the days of Christ the preparation of ointments was hereditary in the Abtinas family. Syrian and Jewish ointments prob. were exported to the Greeks.

c. Containers for storage. It was necessary to exercise great care in storing unguents and perfumes. They kept best in alabaster or lead boxes and were stored in the shade because sunshine was harmful to them. The general use of ointments gave rise to the manufacture of the many beautiful receptacles which have been found in Egypt and Pal. Alabaster was preferred by the Greeks and Romans; the Egyptians and Mesopotamians substituted less costly small glass jars and bottles. Vases have been found in tombs with the scent still clinging to them. The lids of the jars were sealed and the vessel, usually the neck, was broken to pour out the contents (cf. Mark 14:3).

4. Value. Ointments were prized highly in ancient times. Hezekiah displayed them in his treasure house to the representatives of the king of Babylon (2 Kings 20:13). They were used for payment of tribute (Hos 12:1). Amos considered them evidence of luxurious living (Amos 6:6; cf. Eccl 7:1). The manufacture of ointments and perfumes was an important industry in ancient times as well as an important commodity in foreign trade. Judas complained that the ointment poured on Jesus’ feet might have been sold for a large sum of money (Matt 26:9).

5. Uses

a. Magical. In the ancient world the magico-religious use of cosmetics was prominent. Magical preparation and anointing of balsams were part of the stock in trade of Egyp. physicians. The Egyp. priests recited the proper incantations and blessed the unguents used. Traces of magico-religious use of cosmetics still are seen in the custom of primitive peoples of painting the body.

b. Religious. Ritual consecration with oil was quite important in Heb. life. Jacob consecrated the stone at Bethel by pouring oil on it (Gen 28:18; 35:14). Sacred oil was used to consecrate the priests, Tabernacle, and furnishings (Exod 30:22-33). It was made according to specific instructions and could not be used for other purposes (Exod 30:23-25, 33). Elisha was anointed (1 Kings 19:16). The kings of Israel were anointed (1 Sam 10:1; 2 Kings 9:1-3). Shields were anointed, either as an act of consecration before battle or as a preservative (2 Sam 1:21; Isa 21:5). Empowerment by the Spirit accompanied anointing (1 Sam 16:13).

c. Cosmetic. The use of cosmetics or oils for protection of the skin against the penetrating sun was essential in the Near E. The Egyptians made extensive use of unguents, creams, pomades, rouges, powders, eye paint, and nail paint. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (c. 1500 b.c.) gives the formula for an ointment guaranteed to make an old person young; another requiring the fat of the hippopotamus was a dandruff remedy. Pliny and Theophrastus wrote valuable essays concerning the manufacture of cosmetics in ancient times. See Cosmetics.

d. Medicinal. Medicine and religion were intimately associated in ancient times. Magical anointing was practiced by physicians in Egypt. Oil was used for medicinal purposes on wounds (Isa 1:6; Luke 10:34). Gilead was noted for a balm with medicinal value (Jer 8:22). The sick were anointed (James 5:14). Ointment was applied to the eyes (John 9:6; Rev 3:18).

e. Preparation for burial. Ointments were used in embalming and wrapping the body (cf. Gen 50:2, 3, 26). They were bought to anoint the body of Jesus (Mark 16:1). Enormous sums of money were expended for perfuming the body of the deceased, a luxury condemned by Pliny.

f. Hospitality. Anointing by servants at festivities and dinners was common in Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon. Pomades in the form of perfumed balls or cones were attached to the heads of guests. Clothing was sprinkled with fragrant water. Jesus rebuked Simon the Pharisee for failing to render the usual courtesy of anointing (Luke 7:46).

6. Symbolism. Anointing with oil was a sign of gladness and rejoicing (Ps 45:7; Prov 27:9; Isa 61:3), of hospitality (Ps 23:5), of prosperity (Ezek 16:19), of luxury (Prov 21:17; Ezek 16:13), of plenty (Deut 32:13; 33:24). It was omitted at time of sorrow or mourning (2 Sam 12:20, 21; 14:2; Dan 10:3), and fasting (Matt 6:16, 17).

Bibliography R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology, III (1955), 1-49; M. S. and J. L. Miller, Encyclopedia of Bible Life (1955), 204, 205; J. Gray, Archaeology and the Old Testament World (1962), 172.