CHARIOT. In the KJV eight Heb. and two Gr. words are tr. chariot. Of these the word אַפִּרְיﯴן, H712, ’appiryôn, in Song of Solomon 3:9 is strictly a palanquin or covered litter. The term עֲגָלָה, H6322, normally means “cart” used for transport; e.g. Psalm 46:9 refers to supply wagons used in war. The term ֠הֹצֶן occurs only in Ezekiel 23:24 and is possibly a scribal error. RSV follows LXX ἀπὸ̀ βορρᾶ, “from the north” and others adopt צִנָּה֮, H7558, “shield.” The remaining five Heb. words referring to vehicles drawn by oxen, horses or onagers (wild asses) are derivatives of the root רכב, “to ride” מֶרְכָּב, H5323; מֶרְכָּבָה, H5324; רֶ֫כֶב, H8207; רִכְבָּה, H8210; רְכוּב, H8213. Of these מֶרְכָּבָה, H5324, is used some forty times and רֶ֫כֶב, H8207, over a hundred times. In Ezekiel 27:20 the term רִכְבָּה, H8210, means “riding.”

1. Chariots in the ancient Near East. Heavy wheeled vehicles drawn by asses were used in Southern Mesopotamia throughout the 3rd millennium b.c. and are represented in finds from Ur, Kish and Tell Agrab. From Tell Agrab dating c. 2500 b.c., comes a small copper model of a war chariot drawn by four asses. It consists of a flat platform, a pole and two disc wheels, and it was driven by a single driver.

The true chariot which was much lighter was drawn by the faster horse (q.v.). It did not come into use until the 2nd millennium b.c., when folk movements brought peoples from the S Russian steppes and introduced the horse to Mesopotamia. The art of warfare was revolutionized by the horse-drawn chariot. The term “horse” occurs in cuneiform inscrs. as an ideogram meaning “foreigners,” and in phonetic form as sisû in 19th cent. tablets from Anatolia. These folk movements had already reached Asia Minor in the 19th cent. b.c. As the 2nd millennium wore on, Hittites in Anatolia, Kassites in Mesopotamia and Hyksos in Syria, Palestine and Egypt all gained advantage in warfare by the use of the chariot. The Hyksos were enabled thereby to conquer most of Syria and Egypt between c. 1800 and c. 1600 b.c.

The disc wheel gave place to the spoked wheel about 1700 b.c. when wheels with four, or more regularly, six spokes, came into use and remained until about the 10th cent. b.c. The Assyrians in the days of Ashurnasirpal II (c. 883-859) began to use eight spokes. Such wheels remained in use down to Pers. times.

In the second half of the 2nd millennium a special class in society, the mariannu, is referred to in the documents found at Alalaḥ and Ugarit, in the Amarna letters, and in documents from Egypt. They were men of importance who owned a chariot or wagon, perhaps best described as “chariot warriors.” That the two great powers in Western Asia, the Hittites and Egyptians, were using horse-drawn chariots for war is attested both by documents and bas reliefs. The small Aramaean states in Syria and the Canaanites in Pal. also learned to use the chariot. In the 1st millennium the Assyrians made extensive use of the war chariot, which was the secret of their widespread military success.

In construction the chariot was very light, the basic materials being wood and leather. Only essential parts were made of bronze or iron. The body was made of light wicker work with a high front to which were attached holders for spears, arrows, and a battle ax. The back was open. In later chariots the axle was regularly at the rear of the chariot body; earlier it was in the middle. Mostly chariots were low-set, although Sennacherib used one with wheels as high as a man.

The chariot crew consisted of two to four men. In the Egyptian and early Assyrian chariots there were two men, a driver and a warrior. The Hittites had a third man to carry a shield and the Assyrians followed this custom. Their records refer to the šalšu rakbu, “third rider.” Three-man chariots were known in Syria and possibly among the Israelites who had a military officer known as שָׁלִישׁ֙, H8957, “third man” (Exod 14:7; 15:4; 1 Kings 9:22; 2 Kings 9:25; etc.). In the time of Ashurbanipal Assyrian chariots carried four men at times.

Normally two horses were used to draw a chariot. Some Assyrian bas reliefs show a third horse, not yoked to the chariot but tethered behind.

The chariot was of maximum use in battles on the plains although it was used in mountainous areas also, judging from the Bronze Gates of Shalmaneser III in Balawat which depict a campaign in the mountainous areas of the Upper Tigris.

2. The use of chariots. Chariots were used in both war and peace. Reliefs and paintings from various lands show the chariot in use for hunting, processions and ceremonial rites. On such special occasions runners preceded the chariot calling bystanders to pay honor to the dignitary who was approaching (Gen 41:43; Esth 6:11). In Hel. and Rom. periods the chariot was popular for processions and festive occasions and also chariot races in the arenas.

Numerous bas reliefs and inscrs. show the importance of the chariot in war. The number of chariots engaged in battles was listed, as were the numbers taken as booty. Thus Thutmose III claims to have taken 924 chariots in booty at Megiddo (ANET p. 237), and Amenhotep II lists 60 chariots of silver and gold and 1,032 painted wooden chariots among the booty of one of his campaigns (ANET p. 247). Shalmaneser III of Assyria lists 1,121 chariots and 470 horses as the booty for his campaign against Hazael (ANET p. 280), while at the Battle of Karkar in 853 b.c. he claims that Ahab the Israelite sent a contingent of 2,000 chariots to the battle (ANET p. 279). Assyrian and Egyptian records provide many more examples.

3. Chariots in the OT. The first references to chariots in the OT are in an Egyp. setting. Joseph was honored by Pharaoh when he rode in the royal chariot (Gen 41:43). He went to meet his father in his chariot (46:29). Chariots were present at Jacob’s funeral (50:9). Fleeing Israelites were pursued by chariots which were wrecked in the sea (Exod 14:6, 7, 9, 17, 18 etc.; 15:4, 19; Deut 11:4)—an event which became a symbol of God’s deliverance of His people (Josh 24:6; Ps 76:6). In Canaan the Israelites were confronted by Canaanite “chariots of iron,” i.e. with iron fittings (Josh 17:16; Judg 1:19). They were promised victory over such foes (Deut 20:1). The chariots of the Canaanites prob. hark back to the days of the Hyksos. Skeletons of horses and bronze bridle pieces have been excavated in the cemetery of Tell el-’Ajul (Beth Eglaim). The Israelite conquest was at first limited to the hill country because of the risk of fighting the Canaanites armed with chariots on the plains. Even though Joshua had a victory at the “Waters of Merom” over Jabin of Hazor and his coalition of kings with their horses and chariots (Josh 11:4-9), the nature of the victory is unknown. It may have been an ambush, a surprise attack which enabled Joshua’s men to burn the chariots and hamstring the horses. Excavations at Hazor (q.v.) have demonstrated the nature of one of the larger Canaanite chariot centers. But it was many years before the Israelites could conquer the plains which remained in Canaanite hands. Some time later the N tribes of Naphtali and Zebulun defeated the Canaanite army of Sisera and his 900 chariots (Judg 4:3). The Philistines dominated the coastal areas in the days of Samuel and Saul, with the help of their chariots (1 Sam 13:5). Some of the Israelites advocated the necessity of an Israelite chariot force (1 Sam 8:11). David may have introduced chariots into the Heb. army, for he kept a number of chariot horses after defeating the Aramaeans (2 Sam 8:4; 1 Chron 18:4). Chariots featured in the rebellions of Absalom (2 Sam 15:1) and Adonijah (1 Kings 1:5). It was Solomon who esp. developed Israel’s chariot forces. He established chariot “cities” at Hazor and Megiddo, to protect the N against the Aramaeans at Lower Beth Horon; also at Gezer (q.v.) and Baalath to protect the S against the Philistines; and at Tamar in the Arabah as a safeguard against the Edomites (1 Kings 9:15-19; 10:26). His army included 1,400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen. The chariots and horses were bought from Egypt and Kue (Anatolia) (1 Kings 10:28, 29).

After Solomon’s day, the northern kingdom developed its own chariot force. Elah had two groups of chariots (1 Kings 16:9), and Ahab had a very large chariot force. No reference is made to this in the OT, but Shalmaneser III records that Ahab sent 2,000 chariots to the Battle of Karkar in 853 b.c. (ANET p. 279). It seems probable that the stables excavated at Megiddo are the work of Ahab, and not Solomon as was formerly thought.

In Jehu’s and Jehoahaz’ wars with the Syrians Israel’s chariot force was nearly wiped out. Hazael of Damascus reduced Israel to ten chariots and fifty horsemen (2 Kings 13:7) in the days of Jehoahaz. When eventually Samaria fell Sargon reported the capture of only fifty chariots (ANET p. 284).

There is little mention in the OT of chariots in Judah, which prob. had less need of them because of its hilly terrain. Josiah had two chariots at the Battle of Megiddo in 609 b.c. (2 Chron 35:24) but these may have been personal ones. Judah seems to have depended on Egypt for help (Isa 31:1).

In later days chariots featured in the Seleucid wars (Dan 11:40; 1 Macc 1:17; 8:6) when some chariots were fitted with scythes (2 Macc 13:2). There is no evidence that the Jews had chariots, however.

Chariots are used as symbols of royal dignity in the OT (Gen 41:43; 1 Sam 8:11; 2 Sam 15:1; 1 Kings 1:5; Jer 17:25; 22:4). Elijah and Elisha are esteemed as “chariots of Israel and its horsemen” (2 Kings 2:12; 13:14) because they symbolize spiritual power. God too has His “chariots,” symbols of His power (Hab 3:8; Ps 68:17) or His judgment (Isa 66:15). Chariots appear in Zechariah’s visions as messengers of God sent out to the dispersed of Israel (Zech 6:1-8). “Chariots of the Sun” (q.v.) were used in pagan rites in Jerusalem in Josiah’s day (2 Kings 23:11).

4. Chariots in the NT. There are only five references to chariots in the NT. Three of these are concerned with the story of Philip and the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:28, 29, 38). The chariot here was evidently a means of transport (Gr. ἅρμα, G761). Chariots and horses feature in a list of merchant’s cargo in Revelation 18:13, ῥέδα, and in Revelation 9:9 the noise of a locust plague is likened to that made by horses and chariots going into battle.

Bibliography C. J. Gadd, The Assyrian Sculptures (1934), 27, 28, 30-35; O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (1952), 104-106, 124, 125; D. J. Wiseman, The Alalakh Tablets (1953), II; A. G. Barrois, Manuel d’Archéologie Biblique II (1953), 98 ff.; V. G. Childe, “Wheeled Vehicles” in Singer, Holmyard and Hall, History of Technology, I (1954), 724-728; Y. Yadin, B. A. XXIII (1960), 62-68; R. de Vaux, AI (1962), 222-225; J. Gray, The Legacy of Canaan (1965), 7, 144, 232.