BREAD, brəd (לֶ֫חֶם, H4312, bread, food; עֻגָה, H6314, disc or cake of bread; חַלָּה, H2705, a kind of bread (probably perforated); לְבִבָה, H4223, cake (probably pancake); ἄρτος, G788, bread, also loaf, i.e., of bread). That common food product made of ground grain, mixed with liquid, kneaded, and baked, and used by man as an important source of nourishment.

1. Bread as ordinary daily food. Ancient man of Bible times had a simple diet including the important element of bread. The early Hebrews counted it along with water as vital for daily existence (Gen 21:14; Num 21:5; Deut 8:3; 1 Kings 13:8), a food which was normally eaten at home (Gen 18:6; Judg 19:5) or taken on a journey (Josh 9:5, 12). Without it the Israelite felt his life was in danger (Exod 16:3). Bread was counted as the staff of life (called “the staff of bread,” Lev 26:26; Ps 105:16; Ezek 4:16; 5:16; 14:13; cf. Isa 3:1, “the whole stay of bread”).

The NT emphasis is placed on the necessity of bread for the daily life, as seen in the ministry of Jesus when He quoted a portion of Deuteronomy 8:3 to Satan (Matt 4:4) and later showed concern for the food needs of the 5,000 (Matt 14:16-21; John 6:5-14) and of the 4,000 (Matt 15:33-38).

The reference in the Lord’s Prayer to bread (6:11) as ἐπιούσιος, G2157, has produced, among others, two different interpretations: first, that it be taken temporally, as the RSV text, “Give us this day our daily bread,” or margin, “Give us our bread for the morrow”; or second, that it refers to measure, meaning, “Give us this day our bread which we need.” Since “this day” is already expressed in the sentence in the word σήμερον, G4958, the tr. “for the morrow,” or, “which we need,” seems better for epioúsios. The derivation and original sense of epioúsios cannot be determined with exactness (W. Foerster, “ἐπιούσιος, G2157,” TDNT, vol II, 590-599). Matthew 6:11, however, certainly stresses the human dependence on a daily supply of bread (cf. also the manna supplied in the wilderness, Exod 16:13-36).

The amount of bread thought to be needed as an adequate daily supply is understood to include at least three loaves for a man, his family, and a guest according to Luke 11:5-8. Since the head of the house in this story made request of his friend at midnight, the three loaves desired were prob. for only one meal, since the man could purchase more on the next day. The prisoner in OT times, at least in time of distress, received one loaf of bread daily (Jer 37:21). Sometimes men were given just a piece or “morsel” of bread (1 Sam 2:36; 1 Kings 17:11; Prov 28:21), although such an expression as “a morsel of bread” could be used as a figure for a satisfying meal (Gen 18:5; Judg 19:5).

Bread was thought to be part of the divine provision for the physical needs of man (Matt 6:11; Luke 11:3), just as God supplied His Word for the spiritual nourishment of the human being (Deut 8:3; Matt 4:4).

2. The nature of bread and its production. In ancient times this grain product could be spoken of as “bread” (לֶ֫חֶם, H4312, ἄρτος, G788), “loaf of bread” (לֶ֜חֶם, 1 Sam 10:4; 2 Sam 16:1; כִּכַּר־לָ֑חֶם, 1 Sam 2:36; ἄρτος, G788, Mark 6:41), and “cake of bread” (חַלַּ֥ת לֶ֨חֶמ׃֙, 2 Sam 6:19; Exod 29:23; עֻגָה, H6314, Gen 18:6).

The ingredients of the bread spoken of in Bible times included the flour of “wheat” (חִטָּה, H2636, Exod 29:2), of “barley” (שְׂעֹרָה, H8555, Judg 7:13; 2 Kings 4:42; κρίθινος, G3209, John 6:9, 13), and at times was a mixture of “wheat and barley, beans and lentils, millet and spelt” (Ezek 4:9). Bread could be leavened (Exod 12:15; Deut 16:3; Luke 13:21), an ingredient which was forbidden for the bread of the feast following the Passover (Exod 12:8, 15; Matt 26:17; Acts 12:3; 1 Cor 5:7, 8) and for the cereal offerings connected with the Tabernacle (Exod 29:2; Lev 2:4, 5; cf. Gideon’s sacrifice of unleavened cakes, Judg 6:19). Lot served unleavened bread to the two angels who visited him (Gen 19:3).

The flour made from grain could be a coarse kind (“crushed new grain,” Lev 2:14, 16) produced by a mortar and pestle, or that of a finer quality (Lev 2:2; 6:15). Abraham and Sarah gave cakes of bread made of fine flour to their honored guests (Gen 18:6), which was used also for the bread of King Solomon’s court (1 Kings 4:22). The flour was not only prepared with the use of the mortar and pestle but also was produced by mills (Num 11:8) (cf. ANEP, No. 149).

The process of making the bread included taking the measures of meal, getting it ground, mixing it with liquid, and then kneading the dough. For this purpose the Israelites at the time of the Exodus used “kneading bowls” (Exod 8:3; 12:34), prob. something like the old Egyp. kneading trough (ANEP, No. 152). It was in the stage of making the dough that, if used, leaven was added (12:34), and the mixed batch was set aside until the dough was completely leavened (Matt 13:33; Luke 13:21).

The next step in the process consisted of baking the dough, as is evidenced in Leviticus 26:26; Isaiah 44:15, 19, and sometimes oil was added (Num 11:8). In Bible times there were three main methods used in baking bread. The first consisted in putting the dough on rocks previously heated (1 Kings 19:6) with coals (Isa 44:19) covered with ashes. The second method involved the use of a “griddle” or “flat plate” (מַחֲבַת, H4679) as in the baking of the cereal offering in Leviticus 2:5; 6:21; 7:9, which offering could also be baked in a pan or saucepan (מַרְחֶ֫שֶׁת, H5306) (Lev 2:7; 7:9). The griddle was prob. the object upon which “flat cakes” for the Temple service were made (1 Chron 9:31). Clay griddles of the Bronze and Iron I ages have been found at Gezer (R. A. Macalister, The Excavation of Gezer II [1912], 42-44) (cf. also “the iron plate” of Ezek 4:3). The third way of baking was in an oven, which in the OT was called a תַּנּוּר, H9486, a portable stove or firepot, which was a large earthenware or pottery (cf. κλίβανος, G3106, pottery oven) jar which was heated by burning twigs and sticks (1 Kings 17:12), stubble (Mal 4:1) and grass (Matt 6:30) within. On the hot sides the dough could then be baked. The oven could also take the shape of an inverted jar in which fire had been placed the night previous to the baking. On the following day when the rocks within were hot, the dough was placed on them for baking (cf. Hos 7:6).

One of the common shapes of ancient Biblical loaves of bread was round, as indicated by such a word as עֻגָה, H6314, meaning “disc” or “cake of bread” (Gen 18:6). A barley loaf of round (צְלוּל, H7501, “round loaf”) bread tumbled or rolled into the camp of the Midianites (Judg 7:13). Another Heb. word כִּכָּר, H3971, also indicated a “round loaf,” as used in Judges 8:5; 1 Samuel 2:36, and 10:3. Some cakes or loaves were prob. called לְבִבָה, H4223, (cf. לֵב, H4213, “heart”), because they were somewhat heart-shaped (or generally round) in form (2 Sam 13:6, 8, 10). Many loaves and cakes were relatively flat, as would be esp. true of those which were baked on a griddle (Lev 2:5) or in a pan (2:7) (cf. the baking tray from Tell ed-Duweir, ANEP, No. 150). As indicated by the Heb. word חַלָּה, H2705, a kind of cake, prob. perforated or pierced (see the word used in 2 Sam 6:19; Lev 24:5; and to be related to חָלַל֮, H2726, to “pierce”), some cakes or loaves were evidently perforated at some stage in the baking process. It is observed that some types of modern day Arab bread in the Pal. region are round, about eight to ten inches in diameter and flat, and are baked in an ashcovered oven on hot rocks, or in a more modern large oven into which the bread dough is placed by means of long, flat, wooden paddles.

Persons responsible for the making of bread included the wife of the family (in the case of Sarah, Gen 18:6), daughters in a family (as Tamar in David’s family, 2 Sam 13:8), and in the monarchy, women, in general, were called to serve as bakers to supply bread for the king’s court and prob. also for those in his military and civil service (1 Sam 8:13). Various members of the family could be involved in the baking process according to description in Jeremiah 7:18, where “the children gather wood, the fathers kindle fire, and the women knead dough, to make cakes....” Of course, women generally would be involved in breadmaking and cooking (cf. 1 Sam 28:24). In ancient life man could be the baker (Gen 40:16, 17), which tells of the chief baker in the Egyp. pharaoh’s service, which picture is also attested in the Egyp. archeological records (ANEP, No. 152-154; cf. G. A. F. Knight, Nile and Jordan [1921], 109). It has been suggested that the baker alluded to in an illustration given in Hosea 7:4 might have been a professional one.

Bread normally was made at home (Gen 18:6; 1 Kings 17:10-16), but at least in later times there was some sort of commercial or royal bakery according to Jeremiah, where daily bread supplied to Jeremiah came “from the bakers’ street” in Jerusalem. This bakery area might possibly have been in the same general region that later in the time of Nehemiah (3:11) was called the Tower of the Ovens.

In the time of the NT, the purchase of large quantities of bread could be contemplated, as the 200 denarii worth of bread, or normally about thirty-six dollars worth, what was considered necessary for each of the 5,000 people to have a small amount (Mark 6:37; John 6:7), but from this evidence alone it is difficult to determine just how much each loaf was worth.

3. The use of bread in ancient society. In daily life bread was an important part of the daily diet of the family, which included the man, wife, children (Luke 11:5-7) and other members of the household, with any visitors who might happen by (Gen 18:1-6). A man’s field workers were naturally to be provided for (Ruth 2:14), and soldiers on military campaign were provided with bread and other sustenance, sometimes by the family of the ones in military service (1 Sam 16:20). Abraham, on an independent military campaign, was furnished with bread and wine by Melchizedek, the king of Salem (Gen 14:18). Those on a journey took adequate provisions of bread and other food (21:14; 45:23; Judg 19:19), but on the special preaching mission Jesus expected the twelve disciples to receive bread from those to whom they ministered (Matt 10:10; Mark 6:8; Luke 9:3), as was also to be the case in the preaching mission of the seventy (Luke 10:1-9). Those in need, including the multitudes (John 6:9, 13) and the religious prophet and his associates (2 Kings 4:42, 43), received supplies of bread. Sometimes a wilderness preacher, e.g., John the Baptist, would not share in a diet of bread (Luke 7:33), but eat raw the simple food found in a desert area (cf. Mark 1:6).

It was customary in the ancient home for the father of the household to open a meal by taking a loaf of bread, giving thanks, breaking it, and distributing it to the members present (cf. Billerbeck IV, 620ff.). Evidences of this can be seen in the service of the Lord’s Supper when “Jesus took bread, and blessed, and broke it, and gave it to the disciples” (Matt 26:26), which procedure was taught by Paul in his statements about the communion service (1 Cor 11:23, 24). This pattern was followed when Jesus fed the 5,000 (John 6:11).

Bread also was used in religious worship. In the tabernacle ceremonies there were presented, besides the animal sacrifices, instructions for the making of “cereal offerings” in the form of loaves of bread or cakes baked in an oven, or on a griddle or in a pan (Lev 2:4-10, 14-16). The חַלָּה, H2705, a kind of cake, prob. perforated, was used for the twelve cakes or loaves placed on the table of the holy place (Lev 24:5), called in Gr. ἄρτοι τῆς προθέσεως, “bread of the presentation” (Exod 40:23; 2 Chron 4:19; Matt 12:4; Heb 9:2, etc.) This ḥallâ was used in peace offerings (Lev 7:12; Num 6:15; cf. 2 Sam 6:18, 19), and in an offering of first fruits (Num 15:17-20). Observing the Passover Feast, Jesus and His disciples ate a piece of bread, ψωμίον, G6040, (John 13:26-30), and in the Lord’s Supper the bread was a prominent part of the memorial feast (Matt 26:26 and parallels, 1 Cor 11:23, 24).

4. Bread used as a general term for food. Since bread was a most important staple in the diet of the ancients, it was used as a figure of speech for food in general. In the OT the word “bread” is employed to indicate food for animals (Prov 6:8), for man (Judg 13:16 where a kid is in mind, v. 15; 1 Sam 14:24-28, referring to honey), and for God in the sense of sacrifices belonging to Him (Lev 21:6; Mal 1:7). In the NT ἄρτος, G788, is used to mean food in the story of the Prodigal Son, when he states that his “father’s hired servants have bread enough and to spare” (Luke 15:17). In KJV Mark 3:20 and Luke 14:1 “to eat bread” means “to have a meal” (cf. 2 Thess 3:8).

5. The term bread used in a figurative sense. Figuratively the Bible uses the concept of bread to indicate a living made by acts of wickedness (Prov 4:17); an unearned living (31:27); a figure for an enemy who can be consumed (Num 14:9); good deeds done for needy men (Eccl 11:1); a figure for being a guest in a person’s house (John 13:18; Ps 41:9); and as a symbol of the spiritual blessings in salvation (Luke 14:15).

Of particular interest in the OT is the expression, “the bread of his Presence” (lit. Heb. “of his face”) Exod 40:23; 1 Sam 21:6; 2 Chron 4:19; Gr. “Bread of Presentation” cf. (Matt 12:4), describing the bread placed in the Holy Place as bread offered to, and in the presence of, God who is the source of life. In the NT Christ speaks of Himself as “the bread of life” (John 6:35) and invites people to eat this bread, His flesh (John 6:51-55), this passage being interpreted by some as referring to the Lord’s Supper. Rather, since Jesus had not died when making these statements and in the light of succeeding remarks about the disciples committing themselves in faith to Christ (John 6:66-69), eating His flesh is to be interpreted as meaning complete spiritual appropriation of Christ by faith for salvation. In the Lord’s Supper (Matt 26:26 and parallels; 1 Cor 11:23, 24), the bread is not to be understood as being the body of Christ but as a memorial symbol representing His body (observe Paul’s emphasis in 1 Cor 11:24, 25 upon “remembrance” of Christ).

Bibliography R. A. Macalister, The Excavation of Gezer II (1912), 42, 43; J. B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (1955); J. P. Free, Archaeology and Bible History, 5th ed., rev. (1956), 76; W. Foerster,” TDNT, II, 590-599; H. L. Strack and P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, IV (1965), 620-622.