ASTROLOGY. The observation of sun, moon, planets, and stars for the purpose of determining the character of individuals and the course of events.
1. Description. Astrology is an ancient art, the history of which involves such diverse cultures as the Babylonian, Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Persian, Chinese, and Indian. It has most commonly been used as a means of divination, by which future events are predicted. A more cautious claim is that it serves to indicate circumstances and personality factors which tend to result in certain happenings, but not necessarily the events themselves. This approach is useful to astrologers who must face the ancient question as to why twins may have markedly different fates.
The data used by astrology are the movements of the heavenly bodies, specifically, those which appear in the circle of twelve constellations, the zodiac. The sun regularly cuts a path, called the ecliptic, across the zodiac. The planets move in and out of this sector at various intervals. The zodiac was easily observable to ancient man, and was also useful for scientific purposes. It provided a more open and “objective” source for divination than did other methods.
Based on the observations and traditions of centuries, astrologers claim that certain heavenly phenomena are synchronous with earthly circumstances. While it is popularly assumed that astrology considers the planets to have actual influence, of perhaps a physical nature, this view is not universally held. One recent alternative to the theory of “influence” embraces the assumption of the psychologist Jung regarding corporate experience.
The study of the zodiac is complicated by the fact that there has been more than one construction of the positions of the planets in the zodiac. The reason for this is precession, the rotation of the equinox backward. The zodiacal signs have, consequently, slowly moved out of their positions. The significance of this seems to have been noted first by Hipparchus, around 120 b.c. There are basically two systems, therefore, the tropical and the sidereal. The latter is more precise and may well be the earliest form.
In each case, the zodiac is divided into twelve sections or “houses.” The “signs” of these are well known, from Aries the ram to Pisces the fish. The planets passing through these houses form geometrical patterns at various distances known as “aspects.” These are considered to be either benefical or malific. By plotting all the heavenly bodies pertinent to the sign under which an individual is born (date, hour, and place are taken into consideration), an astrologer draws up a celestial map known as a “horoscope.” Conclusions are drawn from this regarding one’s personality, tendencies, etc., and thus predictions are made. These predictions may be rather general. When this information is applied to astrological readings pertinent to a given date in present or future, the prediction offered may be more specific.
2. History in Biblical times. The earliest records of astrology have come from Mesopotamia. It may be traced back as far as 2000 b.c. or earlier, but no certain evidence for the use of the zodiac is known before the 5th cent. Abundant materials are known from the 7th cent., b.c. By the next cent. it had spread to India and China and gained strength there. Egypt came under Assyrian influence at this time, but the Egyptians were more interested in calendrical matters, in which they excelled, than in divination. The most significant migration of astrological ideas was to Greece. Not only was Gr. popular religion suited to astrology, but the scientific and philosophic outlook provided a rationale which commended astrology to intellectuals. A developing system of geometry, an awareness of natural laws and causal relationships, and the tendency to attribute divine personality to the stars provided an environment which not only fostered the use of astrology, but imparted to it a character which would attract some of the finest scientific minds of Greece, Rome, and succeeding cultures.
During the Hel. age, further developments, religious, philosophical, and political in nature, advanced the popularity of astrology. The unification of the world under Alexander the Great was accompanied by a sense of empathy regarding the whole universe. It became even more natural to expect a correlation between stars and men. Belief in Tyche, “chance,” had given way to a resignation to Heimarmenē, “fate.” Men turned to astrology, along with other methods of divination, to determine the circumstances one would have to deal with and to indicate ways of averting disaster. The introduction of the Julian calendar made astrological computations easier, and more people of all classes depended on it.
Stoicism was congenial to astrology because of its concept of the unity of the universe. There were mutually compatible elements in many of the philosophical and religious systems of the day. Lucretius, an Epicurean, could not accept astrology, nor did Cicero.
An attempt was made by one Tarrutius in the 1st cent. b.c. to draw up a horoscope of Rome itself. Some of the Rom. emperors seemed persuaded of the power of astrology. Tiberius made decisions in accordance with his horoscope. Since astrologers supposedly held the key to an emperor’s fate, their predictions could be utilized by those who opposed imperial despotism. For this reason, on more than one occasion when an emperor sent hostile figures such as critical philosophers and statesmen into exile, astrologers were likewise banished.
In spite of Jewish hostility to the “Chaldeans,” their influence gradually penetrated Judaism. In this case, as in others, the Hellenization of the world brought through Jewish culture what would not have been accepted directly. Calendrical observances were important anyway, esp. at Qumran. One document among the Scrolls has been interpreted as astrological in nature. Astrologers were not permitted in Pal. or in the Jewish community at Babylonia. Nevertheless, by the time the Talmud was compiled, this had changed. It mentions astrological practices, and even some well-known rabbis were open to astrology.
Astrology gained entrance not merely among the ignorant and superstitious of the ancient world, but among Gr. and Rom. intellectuals and some Jews and Christians. It persisted through the cent., claiming the attention even of such honored astronomers as Tycho Brahe and Kepler.
Modern astronomy has rendered astrology even less plausible by revealing the vastness of the universe beyond the limited data astrology depended on. Its growing popularity during the last third of the 20th cent. came not from scientific but psychological and social factors, in answer to widespread desire for confidence, guidance, and harmony.
3. Biblical references. The Bible has been appealed to both in support of and in opposition to astrology. The most obvious reference is to the Magi who saw the “star” of the infant Jesus. The word “magus” had a plurality of meanings in the ancient world, but here prob. refers to astrologers. It is possible that, being informed of the Biblical prophecies of the coming Messiah, they were receptive to divine indication through a heavenly phenomenon. The current hypothesis that this indication was a conjunction of planets in a particular “house” of the zodiac, with both planets and house bearing certain significance regarding the Jews and government, is at least plausible. The fact that God could thus speak through this means does not, however, validate all astrology. (God once spoke through Balaam’s ass!) Nevetheless, this means of divination was used by Christians who reasoned that God’s creation was a unified vehicle for His will, and that belief in astrology accorded with the concept of predestination.
Some have attempted to see parallels between the twelve blessings of Jacob on his sons and the twelve signs of the zodiac, or to find astrological significance in the phenomena of Ezekiel 1, Revelation 4, 6 and 12, or in the precious stones of Revelation 21. While it is true that ancient astrologers made associations between specific planets and certain metals, colors, forms of life, etc., it is unfounded speculation to find such here.
On the other hand, the Scriptures are clear in their warnings against dependence on astrologers and other practitioners of divination. Isaiah 47:13 speaks specifically against astrologers (“those who divide the heavens”) who “predict what shall befall you.” Some see a warning also in Isaiah 14:12 and 65:11. 2 Kings 17:16 relates that the Israelites, who turned to idolatry, sorcery, and divination, also “worshiped all the host of heaven.” 2 Kings 23:4f. repeats the charge and adds a specific reference to the constellations (cf. Deut 4:19; 17:2-7; Job 31:26ff.).
Jeremiah cautioned the people not to be “dismayed at the signs of the heavens” which troubled others (Jer 10:2). There is prob. also a reference to astrology in Amos 5:25-27 (cf. Acts 7:42f.). Daniel lived in the ancient cradle of astrology during the Babylonian captivity. Specific rejection of the practice is, therefore, esp. significant: “No wise men, enchanters, magicians or astrologers can show to the king the mystery which the king has asked” (Dan 2:27). The astrologers likewise failed to comprehend the handwriting on the wall (Dan 5:5-16). Other Scriptures (e.g. Lev 19:26, 31; Deut 18:9-14; Isa 8:19) have injunctions against various forms of divination (q.v.).
Bibliography F. Cumont, Astrology and Religion Among the Greeks and the Romans (1912); M. Grant, The World of Rome (1960), 129-153; J. Carmignac, “Les Horoscopes de Qumran,” Revue de Qumran, No. 18, Vol. 5 (April 1965), 199-217; F. Boll, C. Bezold, and W. Gundel, Sternglaube und Sterndeutung, 5th ed. (1966); R. Gleadow, The Origin of the Zodiac (1969).