ARMOR, ARMS (נֶ֫שֶׁק֒, H5977, equipment, weapons [collective] armory [Neh 3:19]; כְּלִי, H3998, armor, of the entire equipment of a warrior [1 Sam 17:54]; מַד, H4496, garment, of fighting attire [1 Sam 17:38]; ὅπλον, G3960, weapon; in the NT used in the pl., τά ὅπλα, RSV “armor” [Rom 13:12], “weapons” [2 Cor 6:7; 10:4]; πανοπλία, G4110, full armor, of a heavy-armed soldier [Eph 6:11; Luke 11:22]; δεξιολάβος, G1287, or δεξιοβόλος, G1286, possibly a light-armed soldier, or a bowman or slinger, or [RSV] spearman [only in Acts 23:23 in the NT]; and a number of other Heb. and Gr. words indicating individual pieces of military equipment). Defensive arms to protect the body in battle with offensive weapons of any kind with which to launch a military attack.

Outline

I. General description of soldiers in the Old Testament and New Testament. A general picture of the OT and NT soldier can be gathered from 1 Samuel 17 and Ephesians 6. In the former passage the Philistine warrior Goliath is depicted as wearing a bronze helmet, coat of mail, and greaves (i.e., protective pieces) for his legs, with a bronze javelin “slung between his shoulders,” and carrying a spear made partly of wood and partly of iron, and a sword encased in a sheath attached to his body, prob. by a belt (1 Sam 17:5-7, 51). His large shield was carried by an attendant (1 Sam 17:7, 41).

The soldier pictured in Ephesians 6:11-17 is one in full armor (panoplia), having on a belt or girdle, a breastplate or coat of mail, shoes or sandals, and a helmet, and wielding a sword and shield.

The military equipment worn by these two soldiers consists basically of similar type articles. The differences in construction, material, and shape of the various items will be observed in the following discussion.

II. Stone Age weaponry. Early man in the Stone Age used a number of different tools and weapons to aid him in the search and preparation of food, and in protection against his enemies. This is evidenced by archeological remains found, as in the case of the Neolithic or New Stone Age. In the early records of Genesis, there is evidence that death dealing weapons were in use, as implied in the statements of Cain (Gen 4:14) and Lamech (4:23, 24). To use ancient Jericho as an example, archeology has uncovered evidence of a Palaeolithic hand-axe, of a civilization of hunters in the Mesolithic period about 8000 to 7000 b.c., at which time there was in use at Jericho a well constructed stone tower and defenses, the last phase of which shows a date of Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (c. 7000 b.c.) (see K. M. Kenyon, Archaeology in the Holy Land [1960], 41, 44, plate 7, 8; Y. Yadin, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, Vol I, 116). The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B state (c. 6000 b.c.) also shows evidence of warfare and defense (cf. mass burials and also arrowheads, Kenyon, 49, 52-56). Although Pottery Neolithic Jericho (c. 5000 b.c.) does not demonstrate as developed a civilization as the earlier periods (Kenyon 67, 68), no doubt the inhabitants used similar implements for food and warfare. The tools and weapons of the people of nearby 4th cent. b.c. Teleilat Ghassul (near the N end of the Dead Sea) are considerably different from those of Jericho; note two copper axes of simple form found here (Kenyon, 73, 75; cf. also W. F. Albright, Archaeology of Palestine [1961], 65, 66).

By the Early Bronze period (3000-2000 b.c.) there was further development in fortifications of towns and of weapons as is evidenced by the copper weapons from Jericho and Tell Hesi, including the socketed axe head, crescent-shaped tanged cutting axe head, and the rectangularly shaped axe blade (Kenyon, 119, 120; Yadin, Vol. I, 143, 149). Also an Egyp. carved ivory handle of a flint knife (c. 3000 b.c.) depicts boats (Egyp. arc shaped and Mesopotamian with high stern and prow) and soldiers with spears and leather shields. The bow, long spears, maces, (i.e., limestone and copper heads for clubs), boomerangs, double-headed axes, and fork-headed arrows also appear on representations from this period, together with the socketed axe head (Yadin, Vol I, 116-126). The two- and four-wheeled Mesopotamian battle chariot showed up at about 2800 b.c. In a limestone stela the king of Lagash of Mesopotamia, c. 2500 b.c., is pictured as leading a heavily armed phalanx of soldiers who wear metal helmets and carry heavy rectangular shields with metal studs and heavy spears. In another scene the same king riding in a chariot, with a quiver, light javelins, battle-axe, sickle and sword, leads metal helmeted soldiers carrying long spears and socketed axes. The swords (made of gold, silver, copper, or bronze, or even iron) of this third millennium are more like daggers which would be used for stabbing. In the 24th and 23rd centuries b.c. in siege against fortified cities the Egyptians are depicted as using mobile scaling ladders, battering poles, and in the late third millennium they employed shallow and semi-circular axe heads pierced with holes to secure them to the haft (Yadin, Vol. I, 146, 147).

III. Old Testament armed units.

A. Evidence of armed units among the Israelite people. In the early period of semi-nomadic life, Abraham and his 318 “trained” men showed considerable military ability in pursuing and routing a combined army of several peoples (Gen 14:13-15). Although not stated, it is to be assumed that for that decisive victory, Abraham and his men must have had at least some simple weapons of stone and bronze. Israel in her Exodus from Egypt shows systematic organization of a military type (cf. Num 2:1-34), depicting a people marching under arms; Exodus 13:18 says “equipped for battle.” That Joshua and the Israelites, functioning as a national or semi-national military unit, included among their weapons the sword is suggested by Joshua’s confrontation with the divine figure depicted as holding a drawn sword in his hand (Josh 5:13). Prominent in Joshua’s military engagement against Jericho were his “armed men” who marched before the priests (6:9); and the sword and other weapons like it were evidently an important part of Israel’s weaponry in its conquest of the land of Canaan (cf. reference to smiting the enemies “with the edge of the sword,” Joshua 10:28-39).

Following the conquest, Israel became sedentary and pursued its agricultural pursuits. Thus military forces were organized in a more informal way under various judges (Judg 3), with several tribes sometimes raising an army, as in the case of Gideon (6:35; 7:24). In the time of Samuel, Israel became “king” conscious (1 Sam 8), and subsequent to Saul’s anointing as monarch (ch. 10), Saul began to gather from the tribes of Israel an army to fight against such as the Amalekites (1 Sam 15:4-7) and the Philistines (1 Sam 17:2, 11; 28:4). Later David (cf. 2 Sam 6:1) and subsequent kings also raised military forces.

B. Units in the army. The numbers in the fighting force of a semi-nomadic sheik like Abraham would, of course, be small (cf. Gen 14:14, 15), and the troops mustered among Israel would at times be limited as compared to the enemy (see Josh 4:13; Judg 4:10); at other times the forces were of considerable size (cf. Judg 5:8; 2 Sam 24:8, 9).

The military units of Israel were based on the society structure, with the clan (mishpaḥah) unit of a 1,000 being prominent (Judg 6:15; 1 Sam 23:23), these units being commanded by sar ’eleph, “commander of a thousand” (1 Sam 17:18; 18:13). Such units could be divided into groups of 100 (1 Sam 22:7; cf. Judg 7:16) and of 50 men (1 Sam 8:12). These Israelite forces with their inferior equipment and limited training were, without the help of the Lord, at a disadvantage in facing the fortified cities of the enemy (Deut 1:28), their ironclad chariots (Josh 17:16-18; Judg 1:19; 4:13; 1 Sam 13:5; 2 Sam 1:6) and their heavily armed military champions like Goliath (1 Sam 17:4-7). Compensating for this disparity, Israel’s military leaders would rely on small groups of specially chosen men (Exod 17:9; Num 31:3, 4; 1 Sam 13:15) and on surprise attacks (14:1-23). (See R. deVaux, Ancient Israel [1961], 214-218.)

Beside the clan and specially picked groups, Israel and others sometimes depended for military victory on the prowess of one or several champions, as in the case of the battle between David and Goliath (1 Sam 17). The champion was called ’ish habbenaym, the “man between two” or “the man for combat between two” (1 Sam 17:4, 23; cf. 2 Sam 21:15-17). DeVaux (Ancient Israel, 218), observes that this term is not found again except in the Qumran document, The Order of the War, but there having a different meaning: “light infantry.” Sometimes a small group of men from each of two sides were to decide a battle (2 Sam 2:12-17). In these early days mercenaries could be hired for military action (Judg 9:4). David had his 400 men (1 Sam 22:2) and later 600 (25:13) who shared with him the spoils of the battle (30:21-25). Later evidence of the professional soldier with action by the national army of Israel is seen in 1 Kings 20:15-20. The national conscripted army of Israel can be seen in various periods of her history, as is evidenced in certain passages (Num 1:3; Deut 20:5-9; 24:5; Judg 7:3; 2 Chron 25:5, 6; deVaux, 225-228). Of particular importance in Old Testament times were the war chariot units, possessed by such as the Canaanites and the Philistines (Josh 17:16-18; Judg 1:19; 1 Sam 13:5, etc.), but these were really not used in Israelite service until the time of David (2 Sam 8:4). Solomon expanded this part of Israel’s military force as is evidenced by his “fourteen hundred chariots and twelve thousand horsemen,” some of which chariots he seems to have imported from Egypt (1 Kings 10:26-29). In this period Egyp. chariots carried two men, one to drive and the other to fight; the Hitt. three or two men; the Assyrian three or four; and the Israelite chariots three persons, the driver or charioteer (1 Kings 22:34), the combatant, and the “third” man or officer (שָׁלִישׁ֒, H8955) (9:22; 2 Kings 10:25, cf. deVaux, 222-224; Yadin, Vol I, 186-196). At about 1000 b.c. the Near E began to show mounted cavalry, as is seen in the 9th cent. b.c. in the Assyrian army, although chariots predominated. Early Near E representation of mounted horsemen come from about 1400 b.c., although regular military cavalry began to appear only near the end of the second millennium b.c., one man at this period being pictured as armed with a bow (Yadin, vol. I, 218-221), and a cavalryman on a relief from Tell Halaf depicted with shield and sword (?) (ANEP, 164).

The Egyptians and Israelites did not use cavalry in the earlier part of the first millennium b.c., except for mounted scouts (2 Kings 9:17). Foreign mounted cavalry are those described in Ezekiel 23:6, 12 (Assyrians), Ezekiel 38:4 (those of Gog), and Nehemiah 2:9 (Pers.). However, in the time of Isaiah some of the people of God did rely on Egyp. chariots and horsemen (Isa 31:1), and Sennacherib, king of Assyria, ironically castigated Judah for trusting in Egypt for these armaments by offering to supply 2,000 horses if Judah could mount them with riders (36:8). In the time of the Maccabees the Jews mustered only foot soldiers against foreign cavalry and mounted elephants (1 Macc 1:17; 6:30f.; 8:6; 2 Macc 11:4; 13:2, 15). In the time of Simon (136-135 b.c.) the Jews did field a relatively small cavalry unit (1 Macc 16:4, 7). Herod the Great had only 6,000 cavalry but 30,000 infantry (see deVaux, 224, 225). In the NT period the apostle Paul was accompanied from Jerusalem by seventy Rom. horsemen, beside soldiers and spearmen (Acts 23:23; cf. deVaux, 224, 225).

C. Fortified cities and towns and siege. Archeology shows evidence of early fortification of Palestinian towns as exemplified by the tower and defense wall of c. 7000 b.c. at Jericho (Kenyon, Archaeology in the Holy Land, 44, plate 7; Yadin, Vol I, 116, 117). Subsequently important cities of Canaan were fortified by encircling ramparts (i.e., broad embankments or protective walls against which could be built a glacis, i.e., a smooth surface sloping to the outside) and towers and gates. The OT witnesses to cities of this type, heavily fortified (Num 13:28), “fortified up to heaven” (Deut 1:28), and as fortified “with high walls, gates, and bars” (3:5). (See deVaux, 229-236.) Against such fortifications the ancients used siege arms and armor. Late second millennium b.c. reliefs show fortified cities attacked by warriors armed with spears and epsilon tang-type axes and defended by rectangular shields (Yadin, Vol I, 230, 231). Although long range bows and slings (cf. the Benjaminites, Judg 20:15, 16) could be employed, heavier arms were used in siege warfare. Early reference to such equipment can be seen in the “seige-works” of Deuteronomy 20:20. In the prophecy of Tyre’s ruin Nebuchadnezzar is depicted as setting up a siege wall and mound against the town and attacking it under the protection of a “roof of shields,” using “battering rams” against the walls of the city, and axes, or rams with pointed heads (Heb., harābôt, “sword”; cf. Exod 20:25 where it clearly means a chisel tool), to break down the towers (Ezek 26:8, 9). In Ezekiel’s mock siege of Jerusalem he is called upon to picture in miniature the “siege-works,” building the encircling mound or trench (or “s iege wall,” דָּיֵק, H1911) and setting against it the “battering rams” (כָּרִ֖ים) (Ezek 4:2), the last of which could be made from trees growing in the vicinity of the besieged city (cf. Deut 20:19, 20). The trees could also be used to help make the ramp or mound (סֹלְלָה, H6149) up which siege machines and rams could be brought (Jer 6:6). Uzziah at Jerusalem is said to have “made engines, invented by skillful men, to be on the towers and corners to shoot arrows and great stones” (2 Chron 26:15). (Cf. also deVaux, 236-238.) Details of such siege building and equipment can be seen in some of the Assyrian King Sennacherib’s (704-681 b.c.) bas-reliefs concerning the siege of Lachish (Yadin, Vol II, 428-437).

In the NT period Jesus predicted that Jerusalem would be surrounded by armies (Luke 21:20) and that a bank or palisade (χάραξ, G5918) would be built all around her (19:43).

IV. Old Testament armor and arms.

A. Offensive weapons. In addition to the larger weapons of siege warfare, the individual soldier was equipped offensively and defensively for military encounter.

A general term for military equipment or weapons is נֶ֫שֶׁק֒, H5977, used in such as 2 Kings 10:2 in reference to weapons available at Samaria, and Ezekiel 39:9 for the weapons to be burned with fire, the specific items mentioned in the v. being “shields and bucklers, bows and arrows, handpikes and spears.” In Nehemiah 3:19 the same Heb. word is used to indicate a place in Jerusalem where weapons were stored, in the description of a section of the Jerusalem wall which is noted to be “opposite the ascent to the armory at the Angle.”

A simple type weapon might be the rod or staff, מַקֵּל, H5234, used as an aid in journeying (Gen 32:10), but seeming to be used as a military weapon in Ezekiel 39:9 (RSV “handpikes”). Another word for staff was the שֵׁ֫בֶט, H8657, which could refer to a rod used as a less powerful but effective weapon against a spear (2 Sam 23:21; 1 Chron 11:23), and even to a shaft or dart, three of which Joab thrust into the heart of Absalom (2 Sam 18:14). The מַטֶּה, H4751, a staff for the traveler (Gen 38:18), could be a warrior’s instrument (1 Sam 14:27, 43), and could also stand for arrows or spears (Hab 3:9, 14; RSV, v. 9, “arrows”; v. 14, “shafts”). A weapon somewhat similar was the war club represented by the words מַפֵּץ, H5151, (literally, a shatterer) and מַפֵּץ (scatterer), the former word being tr. by the RSV in Jeremiah 51:20 as “hammer” and the latter in Proverbs 25:18 by “war club.” Possibly it was something like the ancient mace, a rod with a ball of limestone or some other material on the end, to be used as a club (Yadin, vol I, 118-125). Cf. the ancient battle axes such as the double-headed, four-pronged, flat epsilon, crescent-shaped, etc., varieties (Yadin, I, 118, 119, 122, 136, 149, 150).

The sling was a simple but effective weapon in warfare, such as the קֶ֫לַע֒, H7845, used by David in his single combat with the Philistine Goliath (1 Sam 17:40, 50). Also Uzziah in preparing military weapons for his army provided “stones for slinging” (2 Chron 26:14). It is to be remembered that in an earlier day 700 Benjaminites were known to be expert left-handed slingers (Judg 20:16). On a 10th cent. b.c. Tell Halaf orthostat is depicted an ancient slingman (Yadin, II, 364).

The soldier’s main weapon for offensive combat was the חֶ֫רֶב, H2995, “sword,” Arab., “dart,” “javelin,” which was sometimes used as a symbol of war (Isa 51:19; Ezek 7:15, etc.) and could refer to both the dagger and the sword since the difference would be basically the length. As dagger the word is used of the instrument which Ehud wielded in stabbing Eglon, king of Moab (Judg 3:16, 21, 22). Such dagger weapons were used in the second millennium b.c. by the Egyp. and by the Assyrians of Sargon’s time (721-705 b.c.) (Yadin, I, 216, 217; II, 421, 424, 425). In ordinary military use the ḥereb would refer to what is termed sword, as Gideon’s weapon in Judges 7:14, 20, the swords used by David and his men (1 Sam 25:13), and the instruments used for smiting the city in Ezekiel’s day (5:2). This sword was prob. a relatively short one of twenty-one inches or more. The Egyptians in the middle and end of the second millennium b.c. had a relatively long-bladed sword (Yadin, I, 208, 209, 334, 335), as did the Sea Peoples (Yadin II, 340, 341) and the Assyrians (Yadin, II, 384, 385, 426), the latter having a shorter one as well (cf. deVaux, 241). It may be that the Israelites used only a short sword (deVaux, 241), but the Philistine Goliath no doubt had a long one (1 Sam 17:51) and, because of its unusual character, it was later wrapped up in a cloth and stored at Nob with the vestments of the priest (21:8, 9). The sword is spoken of as being two-edged (Ps 149:6; cf. Heb 4:12), and when not in use, it was kept in a sheath (1 Sam 17:51; 1 Chron 21:27) and fastened to the belt or girdle (2 Sam 20:8), all of which was sometimes removed when not in use (1 Sam 25:13). T he instrument was sharpened for battle from time to time (Ps 7:12). In one instance (Ezek 6:9) ḥereb is employed for a tool like an “axe” (RSV) or sword to be used in demolishing stone.

The כִּידﯴן, H3959, such as worn by Goliath, slung between his shoulders” (1 Sam 17:6), and wielded by Joshua in the battle against Ai (Josh 8:18-26) has been understood to be a javelin (so tr. by RSV in these vv.), but the Qumran Order of the War may be depicting the kîdôn as a sword one and a-half cubits long and four finger-breadths wide, which concept could have been influenced by the Rom. gladius, a sword longer and broader than the ḥereb and suspended from a cross-belt slung between the shoulders. Other details in the Qumran Order of the War, however, seem to be picturing the kîdôn as a scimitar (or curved blade or sickle) type of weapon, or sword, examples of which have been found depicted on monuments and found in excavations (deVaux, 241, 242; Yadin, I, 172, 204, 205, 350). The kîdôn seems to have been rarely employed by Israelites, as exampled by the single Biblically recorded use of Joshua (8:18-26), it being seen in Jeremiah 6:23 (RSV “spear”) as a weapon in the hands of foreigners.

In the spear-lance category the רֹ֫מַח, H8242, was a pointed stave or pike used in personal battles or encounters (cf. Num 25:7, 8; RSV “spear”) and employed in making self-inflicted wounds (1 Kings 18:28; RSV “lances”). It is listed with other weapons (2 Chron 11:12; Ezek 39:9). In the Order of the War this instrument is depicted as seven or eight cubits long, but prob. in OT times its length was about the height of a grown man (deVaux, 242). The חֲנִית, H2851, “spear” seems to have been a shorter and lighter instrument of war, which could be used as a javelin (1 Sam 18:11). As a counter-balance to the weight of the head (of metal), (17:7) the wooded shaft (17:7) was weighted with iron on the other end, which end could then be stuck in the ground when not in use (26:7) and be employed as a club on occasion (2 Sam 2:23). Specimens of this lance have been found in excavations. It was wielded by such as King Saul (1 Sam 19:9), David, Goliath (17:7), and, later, by the temple guards (2 Chron 23:9). The size and construction of Goliath’s lance called for special comment (17:7; 2 Sam 21:19), and it was equipped with a looped leather thong attached to the shaft to aid in distance throwing (deVaux, 242). Another word for spear, קַ֫יִנ֒, H7802, is used of the large and heavy weapon wielded by the giant Ish’-bibe’nob (21:16). Many examples of javelins and spears are shown by Yadin. Some spear and javelin heads have tonged (or hooked) projections for better attaching them to the wooden shafts (I, 156, 157; II, 352, 353), and some were socketed (I, 174). Some are shown to be short, a little longer than arms’ length (I, 169), and others almost a man’s height (I, 166, 185, 215) and long er (II, 411). Examples of javelins or spears with the looped leather thongs and weighted butt end are also to be seen (Yadin II, 355, 420). The שֶׁ֫לַח֒, H8939, some sort of projectile (cf. שָׁלַח, H8938, “to send”), is to be understood, in a military context, only in a general sense as a hand-wielded weapon or missile (2 Chron 23:10; 32:5).

The bow was an instrument employed early by man, showing up in a 1900 b.c. Beni-hasan, Egypt. painting, as being carried by a caravan of Semites on their way to Egypt. Their bow is a well-developed one with a curved spring in it and attached string, and one man is shown wearing a quiver around his neck (Yadin, I, 166, 167). From a single piece of pliable wood drawn taut by a string, the bow developed into a composite instrument of long range effectiveness, composed of wood, horns, and tendons (Yadin, I, 80, 81, 150, 151), sometimes nicely decorated with designs (I, 199), ranging in length from half the height to the full height or more of man (I, 201, II, 334, 335, 384, 385). The קֶ֫שֶׁת, H8008, or “bow,” of the OT, along with the quiver, was used by Esau for hunting (Gen 27:3); for battle purposes Jacob used it in fighting the Amorites (48:22). Israel used it to some degree in the conquest of Canaan (Josh 24:12). At least the kings and leaders of Israel used the bow, as Jonathan (1 Sam 20:20), David (Ps 18:34), Jehu (2 Kings 9:24), and Joash, king of Israel (2 Kings 13:15). That there was a body of archers, prob. professional, is evidenced by Isaiah 21:17 and by the discovery of personally inscribed names on arrowheads coming from 1300-900 b.c. (deVaux, 243; cf. Yadin, II, 353). Arrows H2943, חֵ֫צִי֒) made of wood with metal heads are mentioned in the OT, as is seen in the scene in which Jonathan shoots the arrows beyond David (1 Sam 20:35, 36), and Jehu “shot Joram between the shoulders, so that the arrow pierced his heart” (2 Kings 9:24). Arrows and quivers, often highly decorated, are depicted in the monuments (Yadin, I, 164, 165, 235; II, 348, 349, etc.).

B. Defensive equipment. The body of the ancient soldier was fairly well protected to ward off the offensive weapons wielded against him. One of the most effective defense “weapons” was the shield or buckler, expressed by two basic Heb. words: the מָגֵנ֒, H4482, a round-shaped shield commonly used (cf. Judg 5:8; 2 Kings 19:32, etc., and see reliefs of the Assyrian attack on Lachish, Yadin, II, 430-437; also see II, 340, 341; 418, 419; cf. also Song of Solomon 4:4, 5) was smaller than the צִנָּה֮, H7558, a large shield covering the whole body (cf. the Assyrian whole body shield, Yadin II, 442, 443) such as that carried by Goliath’s attendant (1 Sam 17:7, 41), and a group of which could be used to raise a protective roof over the heads of attackers (Ezek 26:8). For effectiveness in battle the sinnâ is associated with the romah, the long spear or pike (cf. 1 Chron 12:8; 2 Chron 11:12, etc.). 2 Chronicles 14:7 pictures the contrast between the māgēn and the sinnâ, where the army of Judah had the ṩinnâ and the long spear, and the Benjaminites wielded the smaller māgēn and the bow. Shields were made of leather (cf. 2 Sam 1:21, “the shield of Saul, not anointed with oil”; Yadin I, 116) and of wicker material and could be bossed and ornamented (Yadin, II, 407, 420, 421; 386, 387; 216, 217). Another rare word for shield is the שֶׁ֫לֶט, H8949, which is used for David’s shields of gold (2 Sam 8:7 = 1 Chron 18:7) and evidently represents an instrument somewhat parallel to the māgēn with which it is associated in Song of Solomon 4:4. The סֹחֵרָה, H6089, (Ps 91:4) is some sort of a buckler.

The helmet spelled both קﯴ֫בַע, H7746, and כּﯴ֫בַע, H3916, is of foreign derivation, as the variation in spelling witnesses. Goliath, the Philistine, wore one made of bronze kôba’, and David tried one on (qôba’; 1 Sam 17:38) before his battle with the giant. In Jeremiah 46:4 and Ezekiel 27:10 this helmet is associated with foreign troops, but in 2 Chronicles 26:14 Uzziah is said to have provided them for all his army. Archeology freely evidences the use of helmets, made of metal or leather (Yadin, I, 134, 135) or sometimes constructed of mail (I, 192, 193) and in shape, horned (I, 150; 340), conical (II, 360), crested (II, 420), feather-topped (II, 340, 368), and ornamented (II, 340).

The words שִׁרְיﯴן, H9234, and סִרְיﯴן, H6246, the “coat of mail,” as the variation in spelling demonstrates, show evidence of foreign origin. The siryōn is tr. by RSV as “coats of mail” (Jer 46:4; 51:3), and the siryôn of Nehemiah 4:16, worn by people in a construction project, was prob. more exactly breast armor, which at times must have had appendages evidenced by the reference (1 Kings 22:34) to “the scale armor (דֶּ֫בֶק, H1817, appendage) and the breastplate.” Goliath’s coat of mail made of scale-like plates of bronze (1 Sam 17:5) may have been like that introduced by the Hurrites in the first half of the second millennium b.c. and made of plates sewn on cloth or leather (de Vaux, 245). The Egyps. wore scaled armor of this type (Yadin, I, 192, 196, 240) as did also the Assyrians (Yadin, II, 393, 398).

The soldier also wore a belt or girdle, חֲגﯴר, H2512, the article given by Jonathan to David with other military equipment (1 Sam 18:4). Joab is pictured as wearing a soldier’s garment over which he wore a girdle with an attached sheath carrying a sword (2 Sam 20:8). Compare such belts in Yadin, II, 420-424, etc.

Little is said about greaves, protective armor for the legs: Goliath is pictured (1 Sam 17:6) wearing greaves (דֶּ֫בֶק, H1817) of bronze, Near E monuments show the soldier barelegged (Yadin, II, 388, 422-423, etc.). He is pictured also as barefooted or sandaled (Yadin, II, 333, 388), or, as in the case of some Assyrian warriors of the Sargon-Sennacherib period, with shoes or boots laced up toward the knee (Yadin, II, 423-428, 429). The Heb. word for “boot,” מִצְחָה, H5196, used only in the OT in Isaiah 9:5 for the “boot of the tramping warrior,” is prob. a loan word from Akkad. šênu, shoe, or sandal of leather.

V. Armor and arms of the New Testament period. The NT has comparatively little to say about this subject.

A. Units in the army. Acts 23:22, 23, 32 states that the military contingent to accompany Paul from Jerusalem toward Caesarea was composed of 200 soldiers or infantrymen (στρατιώτης, G5132, used also in Matt 8:9; 27:27; John 19:2; Acts 10:7, etc.), 200 spearmen (δεξιολάβος, G1287, or light armed soldier), and 70 horsemen or cavalrymen (ἱππεύς, G2689). The commander who sent this unit with Paul is called χιλίαρχος, G5941, strictly a leader of 1,000 soldiers, but then also an equivalent to a Rom. military tribune, the commander of about 600 men (see John 18:12). The NT speaks also of the ἑκατοντάρχης, G1672, “centurion” or “captain,” an officer of lower rank (cf. also Matt 8:13; Luke 7:6, etc.). Of course, there was the military imperial procurator like Pilate (Matt 27:2; etc.), Felix (Acts 23:24), and Festus (26:30).

B. The Roman soldier. Polybius (6, 22, and 23) describes the Rom. soldier as wearing such as a helmet, a breastplate of brass or chain mail (lorica) to cover esp. the heart, and greaves; and as carrying a javelin, a sword hanging from the right side of the waist, and a shield, either one circular and about three ft. in diameter, or one about two and a half wide by four ft. in length. This description compares favorably with Paul’s metaphorical statement (Eph 6:14-17) about the Christian armor, composed of the girdle and the sword (μάχαιρα, G3479, cf. also Matt 26:47, 51; John 18:11, etc.), the breastplate (θώραξ, G2606, 1 Thess 5:8, the breastplate of faith; see also Rev 9:9), the helmet (περικεφαλαία, G4330), the shield (θυρεός, G2599, a long, oblong shield), and shoes. Another word for sword, ῥομφαία, G4855, represents a large broad sword used by barbaric peoples, esp. the Thracians, but in Revelation 2:12 (cf. 1:16) it simply means “sword.” Compare also the spear or spear point, λόγχη, G3365, (John 19:34). See War, Warfare.

Bibliography J. B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East in Pictures (1954); R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel (1961), 213-246; Y. Yadin, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, vols I, II (1963); K. M. Kenyon, Amorites and Canaanites (1966), 12-55.